L’affaire Al Mahdi devant la CPI : les risques d’évaluer la destruction du patrimoine culturel à l’aune de son impact sur l’homme

 In Article

Par Marina Lostal*

Traduit par Étienne St-Pierre Lemay

Abstract

L’affaire Al Mahdi constitue un précédent historique dans la poursuite des crimes contre le patrimoine culturel, tant pour la Cour Pénale Internationale que pour les autres instances. Cet article examine la stratégie globale de l’Accusation au stade de la confirmation des charges, où l’accent a été mis sur les conséquences pour la population locale qu’a entraînées la destruction des sanctuaires de Tombouctou. L’article suggère que le raisonnement anthropocentrique qui sous-tend cet argumentaire est historiquement sans fondement et qu’il s’agit d’une stratégie peu clairvoyante. À l’aide de l’exemple de la destruction des bouddhas de Bâmiyân, l’article explique comment, à long terme, cette approche anthropocentrique peut restreindre la capacité de poursuivre les auteurs de crimes visant spécifiquement le patrimoine culturel et miner le fondement conceptuel du régime de protection propre aux biens culturels.

Traduction Anglaise

The proceedings against Al Mahdi constitute a landmark precedent in the prosecution of crimes against cultural heritage, inside and outside the International Criminal Court. This article examines the Prosecution’s overarching strategy at the confirmation of charges stage, where emphasis was placed on the consequences that the destruction of the shrines in Timbuktu had for the local population. It is suggested that this anthropocentric line of reasoning was historically inaccurate and strategically short-sighted. Using the example of the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, the article explains how, in the long run, this anthropocentric approach can restrict the capacity to prosecute crimes committed against cultural heritage per se, and undermine the conceptual foundation for the special protection given to cultural property.

Traduction Espagnole

El proceso contra Al Mahdi supone un precedente histórico en la persecución de los crímenes contra el patrimonio cultural, dentro y fuera de la Corte Penal Internacional. Este artículo examina la estrategia global de la fiscalía en la fase de confirmación de los cargos, en la que se puso énfasis en las consecuencias que la destrucción de los templos de Tombuctú tuvo para la población local. El artículo sugiere que este razonamiento antropocentrista fue inexacto históricamente y corto de miras desde un punto de vista estratégico. Tomando como ejemplo de la destrucción de los budas de Bamiyán, el artículo explica cómo, a largo plazo, este enfoque antropocéntrico puede restringir la capacidad de perseguir crímenes cometidos contra el patrimonio cultural per se, así como socavar las bases conceptuales de la protección especial que se debe dar al patrimonio cultural.

Introduction

C’est un fait reconnu qu’Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, un Touareg de nationalité malienne dans la trentaine, possède une grande connaissance de l’Islam. Il a en effet enseigné les préceptes de cette religion avant de joindre le groupe islamiste militant Ansar Dine ( « Défenseurs de la foi ») et de participer à la destruction de sites à caractère historique et religieux à Tombouctou. Il a été arrêté au Niger en septembre 2015 et s’est soumis à l’autorité de la Cour pénale internationale (CPI), faisant de lui le premier suspect à être transféré à La Haye en lien avec le conflit armé au Mali. Al Mahdi est aussi, et surtout, la première personne à être exclusivement accusée d’avoir ordonné des attaques à l’encontre du patrimoine culturel. Des dossiers impliquant des atteintes à des sites cultures ou historiques avaient déjà été traduit par le Tribunal pénal international pour la ex-Yougoslavie (TPIY) dans le cadre de la guerre en ex-Yougoslavie[ref]Par exemple, Jokić et Strugar ont été poursuivis devant la Cour pénale internationale pour l’ex-Yougoslavie (« TPIY ») pour le bombardement de la vieille ville de Dubrovnik durant la guerre des Balkans. Voir Le Procureur c. Miodrag Jokić, IT-01-42/1, Jugement portant condamnation (18 mars 2004) (Cour pénale internationale pour l’ex-Yougoslavie, Chambre de première instance), en ligne : TPIY <http://www.icty.org/fr>; Le Procureur c. Pavle Strugar, IT-01-42, Jugement (31 janvier 2005) (Cour pénale internationale pour l’ex-Yougoslavie, Chambre de première instance), en ligne : TPIY <http://www.icty.org/fr>.[/ref], mais Al Mahdi est la seule personne à être traînée en justice devant une instance internationale pour ce seul motif. Par conséquent, l’affaire Al Mahdi est destinée à devenir un point de référence pour les procès à venir portant sur des crimes contre le patrimoine culturel et, de façon plus générale, pour des dossiers traitant de crimes non contre des personnes, mais contre des biens. C’est à ce titre que les implications de cet arrêt devraient être examinées de près.

Puisque les charges contre Al Mahdi étaient centrées sur la question des attaques contre le patrimoine culturel, d’aucuns ont critiqué la décision du Procureur d’accorder temps et ressources à ce dossier, arguant qu’il s’agissait là de « crimes sans victimes »[ref]Voir, par exemple : Jonathan Jones, « Destroying priceless art is vile and offensive – but it is not a war crime », The Guardian (22 août 2016), en ligne : <www.guardian.co.uk>; et Marie Forestier, « ICC War Criminals: Destroying Shrines is Worse than Rape », Foreign Policy (22 août 2016), en ligne : <www.foreignpolicy.com>.[/ref] [notre traduction]. Il ne s’agit pas d’une description juste, car la destruction ou l’endommagement d’édifices à valeur historique ou religieuse peut créer un préjudice personnel et moral. En fait, la Chambre de première instance de la CPI a accueilli la requête de personnes désirant participer au procès à titre de victimes[ref]L’une d’elles a retiré sa requête au début du procès. Voir par exemple Le Procureur c. Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Decision on Victim Participation at Trial and on Common Legal Representation of Victims (8 juin 2016) (Cour pénale internationale, Chambre de première instance), en ligne : TPI <www.icc-cpi.int>; et Le Procureur c. Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Second Report on Applications to Participate in the Proceedings (25 juillet 2016) (Cour pénale internationale, Chambre de première instance), en ligne : TPI <www.icc-cpi.int>. Voir aussi Statut de Rome de la Cour pénale internationale, 17 juillet 1998, 2187 UNTS 3, à l’art. 68-3 (entré en vigueur le 1er juillet 2002) (« Statut de Rome »).[/ref]. Toutefois, et c’est ce que le présent article avance, le fait que l’Accusation, pendant la confirmation des charges, se soit concentrée sur la dimension immatérielle des évènements – la mesure dans laquelle la population a été affectée par la destruction des biens – ne s’accorde pas avec l’origine historique de ce crime et constituait une stratégie de courte vue.

Une interprétation anthropocentrique des charges, soit un examen centré sur les conséquences du crime sur les personnes, vient limiter le champ d’action de l’Accusation. Il est nécessaire de garder à l’esprit ce fait, puisque la décision dans l’affaire Al Mahdi, comme premier arrêt portant uniquement sur les crimes contre le patrimoine culturel, aura un impact sur le déroulement des procès futurs devant la CPI concernant les crimes à l’encontre du patrimoine culturel, d’autres types de biens ou l’environnement. Cet impact sera d’autant plus important que le Bureau du Procureur a affirmé récemment vouloir se concentrer sur des gestes qui portent atteinte à l’environnement[ref]Cour pénale internationale, Bureau du Procureur, « Document de politique générale relatif à la sélection et à la hiérarchisation des affaires », 15 septembre 2016, au para 7.[/ref]. L’affaire Al Mahdi est aussi destinée à devenir une référence pour les poursuites potentielles découlant de violations du droit international en Syrie et en Irak, où la destruction et le pillage du patrimoine culturel se font à une échelle inégalée[ref]Voir, par exemple : Alexander A. Bauer, « Editorial : The Destruction of Heritage in Syria and Its Implications », 2015, 22:1 Intl J Cultural Property 1, aux pp 1-6. [/ref]. Finalement, vu l’inclusion par les groupes fondamentalistes de la destruction du patrimoine culturel dans leur discours idéologique et leur modus operandi en Libye, en Égypte et au Yémen[ref]Voir, par exemple : « UNESCO Director-General deplores destruction of parts of ancient city of Baraqish, calls for protection of Yemen’s heritage », Actualités de l’UNESCO, 13 septembre 2015, en ligne au <https://fr.unesco.org>; « La Directrice générale de l’UNESCO condamne la destruction du Musée d’art islamique du Caire (Égypte) », Actualités de l’UNESCO, 24 janvier 2014, en ligne au <https://fr.unesco.org>. [/ref], l’affaire Al Mahdi servira aussi de point d’ancrage pour les poursuites potentielles contre les auteurs de ces crimes dans leurs pays[ref]L’article 28 de la Convention de La Haye de 1954 pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé impose les États parties « à prendre, dans le cadre de leur système de droit pénal, toutes mesures nécessaires pour que soient recherchées et frappées de sanctions pénales ou disciplinaires les personnes, quelle que soit leur nationalité, qui ont commis ou donné l’ordre de commettre une infraction à la présente Convention » (Convention pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, 14 mai 1954, UNTS vol. 249, art 28 (entrée en vigueur le 7 août 1956)). Les dispositions traitant des poursuites pénales en droit domestique et de la responsabilité pénale individuelle ont été davantage étoffées dans le Chapitre 4 du Deuxième Protocole additionnel à la Convention de La Haye de 1954 pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, 26 mars 1999, UNESCO Doc.HC/1999/7 (entrée en vigueur le 9 mars 2004).[/ref].

La première partie de cet article présente le conflit au Mali et le rôle joué par Al Mahdi dans la destruction d’éléments du patrimoine culturel de Tombouctou. La seconde examine l’importance du patrimoine culturel malien pour sa population et la façon dont ce patrimoine immatériel est de plus en plus reconnu en droit international. La troisième partie analyse comment, à l’étape de la confirmation des charges, le Bureau du Procureur a appuyé son argumentation sur une vision anthropocentrique du crime, et avance que ce raisonnement n’est conforme ni avec l’histoire juridique de l’interdiction de viser le patrimoine culturel ni avec ses objectifs. Par conséquent, l’interprétation de l’Accusation devrait être considérée comme inédite en droit. Pour conclure, l’exemple de la destruction des bouddhas de Bâmiyân sera évoqué pour argumenter que cette interprétation nouvelle du droit est malheureuse, car elle risque, à long terme, de restreindre la possibilité de poursuivre les auteurs de crimes contre le patrimoine culturel qui n’auraient pas d’impact notable sur les populations locales.

 

Le conflit au Mali et le rôle d’Al Mahdi dans la destruction du patrimoine culturel

En avril 2012, les groupes Ansar Dine, Al-Qaïda au Maghreb islamique (AQMI) et le Mouvement pour l’unicité et le djihad en Afrique de l’Ouest (MUJAO) se sont emparés de Kidal, Gao et Tombouctou, les trois régions septentrionales du Mali[ref]Isaline Bergamaschi, « French Military Intervention in Mali: Inevitable, Consensual yet Insufficient », 2013, 2(2):20, Intl J Sec & Dev 1 à la p 2; Maryne Rondot, « The ICC’s Investigation into Alleged War Crimes in Mali » in Institute for the Study of Human Rights, University of Columbia (New York: American Non-Governmental Organizations Coalition for the International Criminal Court (AMICC), 2013), aux pp 2-3.[/ref], dans ce qui était à l’époque un conflit armé non international. Tous ces groupes souhaitaient imposer une version radicale de la charia, qui comprend non seulement des peines comme l’amputation et la décapitation pour les crimes jugés sérieux[ref]Human Rights Watch, « Effondrement de l’État, conflit et atrocités au Mali : Recueil de documents publiés par Human Rights Watch sur le conflit armé de 2012-2013 et ses conséquences » (2014), p 62.[/ref], mais aussi la destruction de certains sites religieux et historiques pour leur caractère impie[ref]Anna Z. Zajac, « Between Sufism and Salafism: The The Rise of Salafi Tendencies after the Arab Spring and Its Implications », (2014) 29:2 Hemispheres 9, aux pp 97-98.[/ref].

Al Mahdi a été mis à tête de la Hesbah, une brigade des mœurs dont la mission était, dans ses propres mots :

d’assurer la promotion de la vertu et la prévention du vice… réformer les maux apparents dans les rues, tels que le fait de ne pas porter le voile, de dévoiler ses attraits, la mixité, le tabagisme, les photos, les affiches portant, par exemple, des slogans interdits[ref]CPI, « Collection of footage presented by the OTP during the Confirmation of Charges hearing » (1er mars 2015), en ligne : https://www.icc-cpi.int/mali/al-mahdi; voir aussi CPI, « Le Procureur c. Al Mahdi », Jugement portant condamnation (27 septembre 2016).[/ref].

La Hesbah devait aussi décider de la destruction ou non des sanctuaires, des mosquées et des monuments historiques de Tombouctou. Il s’agissait là d’un dossier majeur, vu le caractère emblématique de la ville. Historiquement, Tombouctou a « joué un rôle crucial dans la diffusion de l’Islam dans la région[ref]Le Procureur c. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Jugement portant condamnation (public) (27 septembre 2016) au para 78 (Cour pénale internationale, Chambre de première instance VIII), en ligne : CPI < https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/Main.aspx?ln=fr >.[/ref] », et fait partie de la liste de sites du Patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO possédant une valeur exceptionnelle pour l’humanité toute entière[ref]Voir la Convention concernant la protection du patrimoine mondial, culturel et naturel, 16 novembre 1972, 1037 UNTS 151, préambule et art. 1 (entrée en vigueur le 17 décembre 1975) (« Convention sur le patrimoine mondial »).[/ref].

Dès le début des procédures, Al Mahdi a avoué sa culpabilité[ref]Voir Le Procureur c. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Dépôt de l’Accord sur l’aveu de culpabilité de M. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi (19 août 2016) (Cour pénale internationale, Chambre préliminaire I), en ligne : CPI < https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/Main.aspx?ln=fr > (« Accord sur l’aveu »).[/ref]. À l’ouverture du procès, il a demandé pardon aux habitants de Tombouctou de la façon suivante :

…je me tiens devant vous, dans cette enceinte, plein de remords et de regret pour confirmer à nouveau que les accusations portées contre moi par l’équipe de l’Accusation sont véridiques […] Je suis fort contrit de mes actes et de tous les préjudices que cela a causés[ref]Le Procureur c. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, « Affaire Al Mahdi : l’accusé plaide coupable lors de l’ouverture du procès (22 août 2016), en ligne : < https://youtu.be/KXBeTC9uadw >.[/ref].

Comme il s’agissait du premier aveu de culpabilité jamais enregistré devant la CPI, la Chambre de première instance a pris le temps de clarifier les modalités de cette option. Le Statut de Rome n’autorise pas la négociation de plaidoyer, c’est-à-dire le fait pour un accusé de plaider coupable, suite à une entente avec la poursuite, à certaines ou à l’ensemble des charges en échange, par exemple, d’une peine réduite. Si l’article 65(5) du Statut de Rome permet des discussions entre le Procureur et la défense, le résultat de celles-ci n’engage pas la Cour. En l’espèce, le Procureur a recommandé une peine allant de 9 à 11 ans d’emprisonnement[ref]Accord sur l’Aveu, supra note 14, au para 19; voir aussi Le Procureur c. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, « Public redacted version of ‘Prosecution’s submissions on sentencing’ »  dans l’affaire Al Mahdi (22 juillet 2016) (Cour pénale internationale, Chambre de première instance VIII), en ligne : CPI < https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/Main.aspx?ln=fr > (« Observations du Procureur sur la peine »).[/ref]. Même si la Chambre de première instance aurait pu imposer une peine allant jusqu’à 30 ans derrière les barreaux, Al Mahdi a finalement été condamné à 9 ans d’emprisonnement. La Chambre de première instance a, dans sa décision, considéré l’aveu de culpabilité comme une circonstance atténuante[ref]La Chambre de première instance a retenu quatre autres circonstances atténuantes : sa coopération avec l’Accusation, ses remords et son empathie pour les victimes et sa réticence initiale à commettre le crime et sa bonne conduite en détention. Supra note 11 au para 109.[/ref] importante, faisant en revanche remarquer qu’il « a été fait alors que des preuves accablantes attestaient de la culpabilité d’Ahmad Al Mahdi »[ref]Ibid au para 100.[/ref].

Le crime commis par Al Mahdi se trouve son fondement juridique dans l’article 8(2)(e)(iv) du Statut de Rome, qui définit comme suit le crime de guerre d’attaque contre des biens :

Le fait de diriger intentionnellement des attaques contre des bâtiments consacrés à la religion, à l’enseignement, à l’art, à la science ou à l’action caritative, des monuments historiques, des  hôpitaux et des lieux où des malades et des blessés sont rassemblés, pour autant que ces bâtiments ne soient pas des objectifs militaires[ref]Le Statut de Rome contient une disposition identique applicable en cas de conflits armés internationaux à l’article 8(2)(b)(ix) (voir Statut de Rome, supra note 3, art 8(2)(b)(ix)).[/ref].

La Chambre de première instance n’a vu aucune raison d’envisager une requalification des charges sous l’article 8(2)(e)(xii), qui punit « [l]e fait de détruire ou de saisir les biens d’un adversaire, sauf si ces destructions ou saisies sont impérieusement commandées par les nécessités du conflit », car cette disposition fait référence au crime contre des biens civils au sens général[ref]Supra note 11 au para 12.[/ref]. Bien qu’il s’agisse d’une lex specialis, le crime de guerre qui englobe les attaques contre le patrimoine culturel dans le Statut de Rome a un point faible non négligeable : l’absence de mention des biens meubles[ref]Micaela Frulli, « The Criminalisation of Offenses against Cultural Heritage in Times of Armed Conflict: The Quest for Consistency » (2001) 22:1 EJIL 203, à la p 212.[/ref]. Le patrimoine culturel peut aussi s’incarner dans des objets comme des tableaux, des figures, des reliques, ou, dans le cas de Tombouctou, des manuscrits antiques. Effectivement, l’UNESCO estime que « 4203 manuscrits du Centre de recherche Ahmed Baba sont perdus »[ref]« Les dommages causés au patrimoine culturel de Tombouctou sont plus sérieux que prévu d’après une mission de l’UNESCO », Actualités de l’UNESCO (7 juin 2013), en ligne : <https://fr.unesco.org/news/dommages-caus%C3%A9s-au-patrimoine-culturel-tombouctou-sont-plus-s%C3%A9rieux-que-pr%C3%A9vu-d%E2%80%99-mission-l>.[/ref] et que 300 000 autres nécessitent des mesures de conservation urgentes. Néanmoins, cette perte d’une partie du patrimoine culturel malien n’a pas été prise en compte par la CPI dans l’affaire Al Mahdi.

La Chambre de première instance a déterminé qu’Al Mahdi avait été impliqué dans la destruction de dix sites historiques et religieux[ref]Soit: Sidi Mahamoud Ben Omar Mohamed Aquit; Cheikh Mohamed Mahmoud Al Arawani; Cheikh Sidi El Mokhtar Ben Sidi Mouhammad Al Kabir Al Kounti; Alpha Moya; Cheikh Sidi Ahmed Ben Amar Arragadi; Cheikh Mouhamad El Mikky; Cheikh Abdoul Kassim Attouaty; Ahmed Fulane et Bahaber Babadié; et la mosquée de Sidi Yahia.[/ref], et tous, à l’exception du mausolée Cheikh Mohamed Mahmoud Al Arawani, étaient des sites protégés inscrits au patrimoine mondial par l’UNESCO. Au départ, Al Mahdi avait recommandé de garder les mausolées intacts afin de « préserver les relations entre la population et les groupes d’occupation[ref]Supra note 11 au para 36.[/ref] ». Après avoir reçu des instructions d’Ag Ghaly, le chef d’Ansar Dine, et d’Abou Zeid, le gouverneur de Tombouctou pendant l’occupation des groupes armés, Al Mahdi a consenti à procéder à la destruction des sites, et il était présent à chaque évènement. Il a décidé lui-même de l’ordre dans lequel les sites seraient détruits, et a même rédigé un sermon justifiant les attaques, qui a été lu à la prière du vendredi[ref]Ibid au para 37.[/ref].

Al Mahdi a admis avoir été complice de la destruction de neuf mausolées et de la porte de la mosquée de Sidi Yahia[ref]Le Procureur c. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Mandat d’arrêt (version publique expurgée) (18 septembre 2015) à la p 3, (Cour pénale internationale, Chambre de première instance VIII), en ligne : CPI < https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/Main.aspx?ln=fr >.[/ref]. Les bâtiments ont souvent été ceinturés par des hommes armés afin d’assurer que leur destruction puisse se dérouler sans interruption. Le degré d’implication d’Al Mahdi a varié selon le site, mais il a participé directement à la destruction des mausolées Alpha Moya, Cheikh Sidi Ahmed Ben Amar Arragadi, Ahmed Fulane et Bahaber Babadié[ref]Supra note 11 au para 38.[/ref], recommandant même pour ces deux derniers, contigus à la mosquée Djingareyber, l’utilisation d’un bulldozer. Dans le cas de la mosquée Sidi Yahia, il s’est avéré plus tard que seule la porte avait été détruite. Toutefois, celle-ci avait un sens symbolique pour les habitants de la ville : elle était scellée depuis des temps immémoriaux et devait protéger la population du mauvais œil. En fait, « certains témoins ont commencé à pleurer en apercevant le dommage »[ref]BBC News, « Timbuktu’s Sidi Yahia mosque ‘attacked by Mali militants’ », 2 juillet 2012, en ligne : <http://www.bbc.com/news/worldafrica-18675539>.[/ref] [notre traduction], croyant que la destruction de la porte serait « annonciatrice de mauvaise fortune »[ref]Ibid.[/ref] [notre traduction]. C’est à la lumière de ces témoignages que la Chambre préliminaire de la CPI a adopté la position selon laquelle « [c]es bâtiments étaient précieux pour la population, faisaient l’objet de pratiques religieuses […] et incarnaient l’identité de la ville[ref]Le Procureur c. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Décision relative à la confirmation des charges portées contre Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi (version publique expurgée), 24 mars 2016 (Cour pénale internationale, Chambre préliminaire I), en ligne : CPI < https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/Main.aspx?ln=fr >.[/ref] ». Al Mahdi a lui-même fait l’achat des pioches utilisées sur le site avec les fonds de la Hesbah, et il a justifié la destruction de la porte aux médias en évoquant « l’un des moyens d’éradiquer la superstition, l’hérésie et toutes choses ou subterfuges qui peuvent conduire [au pêché d’]association »[ref]Supra note 11 au para 38(viii).[/ref].

Al Mahdi attend en ce moment la phase des réparations, où la Chambre de première instance décidera des formes appropriées de compensation, de réhabilitation ou de mesure symbolique pour les victimes*.

* Note du traducteur : L’ordonnance de réparation a été rendue le 17 août 2017

 

Le caractère immatériel du patrimoine détruit au Mali

Tombouctou est parfois décrite comme « la ville aux 333 saints (sufi) », ces saints réputés enterrés dans les seize mausolées sous la ville. Elle abrite aussi des milliers de manuscrits sacrés, dont bon nombre datent du XIIIe siècle, et trois mosquées antiques : Djingareyber et Sidi Yahia, toutes deux touchées par le conflit, ainsi que Sankoré[ref]Direction Nationale du Patrimoine Culture & Ministère de la Culture, « Rapport : État actuel de conservation du bien Tombouctou », (République du Mali : Direction Nationale du Patrimoine Culture et Ministère de la Culture, 2014) à la p 2.[/ref]. Le soufisme, l’un des multiples courants au sein de l’Islam, se fait accuser par les adeptes du salafisme, le crédo des groupes fondamentalistes, d’être polythéiste[ref]Supra note 10.[/ref]. C’est le caractère soi-disant idolâtre de ces mausolées et mosquées qui a poussé à la destruction de nombre d’entre elles entre mai et juillet 2012[ref]CPI, « Situation au Mali – Rapport établi au titre de l’article 53-1 », 16 janvier 2013, à la p 11.[/ref].

Al Mahdi était sous l’ordre d’observer le comportement de la population locale et des pèlerins à ces sites et de tenter de dissuader leurs pratiques religieuses[ref]Supra note 11 au para 35.[/ref]. Le mausolée Cheikh Sidi El Mokhtar Ben Sidi Mouhammad Al Kabir Al Kounti, par exemple, était une destination populaire pour les pèlerins de tout le Mali et de l’étranger, le mausolée Alpha Moya était fréquenté régulièrement par les musulmans pour y « prier et y faire des offrandes[ref]Ibid au para 38(iv).[/ref] », le mausolée Cheikh Mouhamad El Mikki était un lieu de « retraite spirituelle et de réflexion »[ref]Ibid au para 38(v).[/ref], alors que les deux mausolées rattachés à la mosquée Djingareyber étaient utilisés deux fois par semaine à des fins religieuses[ref]Ibid au para 38(ix).[/ref]. Comme l’a reconnu la Chambre de première instance, ces sites :

étaient très importants pour sa population, qui les admirait et y était attachée. Ils attestaient de la dévotion de cette population à l’Islam et jouaient un rôle psychologique tel qu’ils étaient perçus par cette population comme une protection[ref]Ibid au para 78.[/ref].

L’un des aspects sans précédent de l’affaire Al Mahdi qui mérite un examen vigilant est toute l’attention portée à l’impact de la destruction des monuments et mosquées sur la population de Tombouctou. Le Procureur a souligné à gros trait, à l’étape de la confirmation des charges, moment charnière des procédures[ref]En bref, à l’étape de la confirmation des charges, la Chambre préliminaire agit comme gardien de l’admissibilité des affaires. Sa décision se base, inter alia, sur la gravité du crime. Voir les art 17 et 61 du Statut de Rome, 17 juillet1998, UN Doc A/CONF 183/9 [Statut CPI].[/ref], le caractère intangible du patrimoine culturel. Les premiers outils juridiques applicables aux conflits armés, comme la Convention concernant la guerre sur terre, adoptée à La Haye en 1907 (« Convention de La Haye de 1907 ») et la très marquante Convention pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, adoptée à la La Haye en 1954 (« Convention de La Haye de 1954 »), ne traitaient pas de cet impact sur les populations locales. À mesure que le discours sur les droits de la personne a acquis sa prépondérance actuelle, l’approche face aux objets culturels s’est modifiée. Alors qu’il était fréquent de référer à de tels objets comme des « biens culturels », il est maintenant préférable de les grouper sous le vocable « patrimoine culturel », qui rend bien leur dimension immatérielle[ref]Voir Lyndel V Prott & Patrick J O’Keefe, « ‘Cultural Heritage’ or ‘Cultural Property’? » (1992) 1:2 International Journal of Cultural Property, à la p 307.[/ref].

Depuis cette date, il est devenu axiomatique d’affirmer que les dimensions matérielle et immatérielle du patrimoine culturel sont souvent les deux côtés d’une même médaille. Selon le Comité des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels, le droit de chacun de « participer à la vie culturelle », consacré par l’article 15(1)c) du Pacte international relatif aux droits économiques, sociaux et culturels, est lié à « l’utilisation de biens […] culturels[ref]Comité des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels (ONU), « Observation générale n°21 », 43e session, E/C.12/GC/21 (2009), art 15(b).[/ref] ». L’ex-Experte indépendante dans le domaine des droits culturels, Farida Shaheed, était d’avis qu’ :  « [a]fin de préserver et de sauvegarder le patrimoine culturel, il est indispensable de considérer l’accès au patrimoine culturel et la jouissance de ce patrimoine comme un droit fondamental »[ref]Farida Shaheed, « Rapport de l’Experte indépendante dans le domaine des droits culturels », 2011, CDH, 17e  session au para 2.[/ref]. La présente Experte, Karina Bennoune, a accordé priorité à l’idée selon laquelle la destruction intentionnelle du patrimoine culturel est une violation des droits de la personne, et, dans un rapport en lien avec le sujet, affirme que « [l]e patrimoine culturel doit être appréhendé comme l’ensemble des ressources qui rendent possibles les processus d’identification et de développement culturel des personnes et des groupes et que ces derniers, de façon implicite ou explicite, veulent transmettre aux générations suivantes[ref]Karina Bennoune, « Rapport de l’Experte indépendante dans le domaine des droits culturels », 2016, CDH, 31e session au para 47.[/ref] ». Dans la même veine, l’UNESCO a adopté deux traités mettant l’accent sur la dimension immatérielle du patrimoine culturel : la Convention pour la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel immatériel de 2003[ref]« Convention pour la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel immatériel », 17 octobre 2003, 2368 UNTS, en ligne : <https://treaties.un.org/pages/overview.aspx?path=overview/overview/page1_fr.xml>.[/ref] et la Convention sur la protection et la promotion de la diversité des expressions culturelles de 2005[ref]« Convention sur la protection et la promotion de la diversité des expressions culturelles », 20 octobre 2005, 2440 UNTS 311, en ligne : <https://treaties.un.org/pages/overview.aspx?path=overview/overview/page1_fr.xml>.[/ref].

Souligner le lien étroit qui unit les dimensions matérielles et immatérielles du patrimoine culture est souvent pertinent. Par exemple, la reconnaissance de l’importance symbolique de ce dernier peut jouer un rôle déterminant dans l’élaboration des processus de paix et de réconciliation[ref]Voir Dacia Viejo-Rose, « Reconstructing Heritage in the Aftermath of Civil War: Re-Visioning the Nation and the Implications of International Involvement » (2013) 7:2 Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 125; et Marina Lostal et Emma Cunliffe, « Cultural heritage that heals: factoring in cultural heritage discourses in the Syrian peacebuilding process » (2016) 7:2-3 The Historic Environment: Policy & Practice 248.[/ref]. Les conséquences de la destruction du patrimoine culturel sur les personnes et les communautés doivent aussi être considérées au moment de déterminer la forme et l’aspect quantitatif des réparations dues aux victimes, et pour évaluer la gravité du crime à l’étape de la peine. En fait, la Chambre de première instance a fait remarquer pendant le procès d’Al Mahdi que la « valeur symbolique et affective [des bâtiments visés] pour les habitants de Tombouctou est à prendre en compte dans l’évaluation de la gravité du crime commis[ref]Supra note 11 au para 79.[/ref] » et, grâce au statut de la ville comme site protégé du patrimoine mondial, que l’attaque a aussi touché « toute la population du Mali et la communauté internationale »[ref]Ibid au para 80.[/ref].

Malgré cette tendance de fond, se concentrer sur la dimension immatérielle du patrimoine culturel à l’étape de la confirmation des charges, comme dans l’affaire Al Mahdi, n’est pas une stratégie avantageuse à long terme dans la poursuite de l’auteur de ces crimes. Cet accent anthropocentrique, comme nous le verrons, constitue en fait une nouveauté sur le plan juridique qui non seulement est historiquement inexacte, mais surtout pourrait limiter la portée de la protection accordée au patrimoine culturel matériel.

 

La stratégie de l’Accusation à la confirmation des charges : « Ce qui est en jeu ici dépasse largement les murs et les pierres »

La confirmation des charges devant la CPI est une étape initiale des procédures pendant laquelle la Chambre préliminaire doit déterminer « s’il existe des preuves suffisantes donnant des motifs substantiels de croire que la personne a commis chacun des crimes qui lui sont imputés[ref]Statut de Rome, supra note 3, art 61(7).[/ref] », et, le cas échéant, confirmer les charges. À cette étape, la Chambre préliminaire peut aussi évaluer la gravité de l’affaire, et si celle-ci s’avérait ne pas être suffisamment grave pour donner lieu à une poursuite, elle serait déclarée irrecevable[ref]Ibid, arts 17(1)d) et 19.[/ref]. Dans une autre affaire, la Chambre préliminaire a affirmé que « tous les crimes relevant de la compétence de la Cour [comme la destruction du patrimoine culturel] sont des crimes graves[ref]Décision relative à la demande d’autorisation d’ouvrir une enquête dans le cadre de la situation en République du Kenya rendue en application de l’article 15 du Statut de Rome, ICC-01/09, Chambre préliminaire (31 mars 2010) au para 56. L’évaluation de la gravité à des fins de recevabilité ne doit pas être confondue avec l’évaluation des facteurs pris en compte par la Cour de première instance au moment de déterminer la peine. Il s’agit là de deux évaluations distinctes.[/ref] », mais que la référence au seuil de gravité est une « garantie supplémentaire qui épargne à la Cour d’enquêter, d’engager des poursuites et de juger des affaires d’importance secondaire[ref]Ibid. Voir aussi Margaret M. de Guzman, « The International Criminal Court’s Gravity Jurisprudence at Ten » (2013) 12:3 Global Studies Law Review à la p 475.[/ref] ».

Étant donné que l’affaire Al Mahdi représente un précédent historique en ce sens que la poursuite était basée uniquement sur des charges d’endommagement et de destruction du patrimoine culturel, et considérant aussi la crise de légitimité qui secoue actuellement la CPI[ref]Iain Macleod et Shehzad Charania, « Three challenges for the International Criminal Court », 16 novembre 2015, OUPblog (blogue), en ligne : <https://blog.oup.com/2015/11/three-challenges-international-criminal-court/>.[/ref], le seuil de gravité a fort probablement été une préoccupation majeure du Bureau du procureur, d’autant plus lorsque l’on considère les critiques persistantes qu’il a essuyées pour s’être intéressé à un crime contre des biens. Amnistie internationale et la Fédération internationale des droits de l’Homme, notamment, ont exprimé publiquement « des réserves quant au fait que la CPI ait choisi d’aller de l’avant avec cette affaire alors que d’autres crimes [commis au Mali] comme le meurtre, le viol et la torture de civils n’ont pas reçu la même attention[ref]Brian I Daniels, « Is the destruction of cultural property a war crime? », Apollo, 28 novembre 2016, en ligne : <https://www.apollomagazine.com/is-the-destruction-of-cultural-property-a-war-crime/>.[/ref] ». Peut-être par méfiance face à la perception que les attaques contre des biens sont des crimes détachés de la souffrance humaine, la Procureure en chef de la CPI, Fatou Bensouda, a déclaré immédiatement après le transfert d’Al Mahdi à La Haye que les attaques contre les mausolées constituaient « une attaque impitoyable contre la dignité et l’identité de populations entières, contre leurs racines religieuses et historiques[ref]Fatou Bensouda, « Déclaration du Procureur de la CPI suite au transfèrement du premier suspect dans le cadre de l’enquête au Mali : “Les attaques intentionnelles contre des monuments historiques et bâtiments consacrés à la religion constituent des crimes graves” », 26 septembre 2015, en ligne : < https://www.icc-cpi.int/pages/item.aspx?name=otp-stat-26-09-2015&ln=fr >.[/ref] » et a ajouté que « [l]es habitants du nord du Mali [sont] les principales victimes de ces attaques[ref]Ibid.[/ref] ». Cette affirmation politique a acquis une dimension juridique lorsque l’Accusation a offert à l’audience de confirmation des charges une argumentation en droite ligne avec cette vision anthropocentrique. Bensouda a fait l’affirmation suivante :

Soyons tout à fait clairs : ce qui est en jeu ici n’est pas juste des murs et des pierres; les mausolées détruits étaient importants du point de vue religieux, ainsi que d’un point de vue historique, et du point de vue de l’identité de la population[ref]CPI, « Transcription de l’audience de confirmation des charges, affaire Al Mahdi », 1er mars 2016 à la p 13.[/ref].

L’Accusation a par la suite abordé un certain nombre d’aspects techniques nécessaires de l’affaire, comme les cinq éléments constitutifs du crime d’attaque contre le patrimoine culturel tels qu’applicables à l’accusé[ref]Ibid aux pp 73-79. [/ref], et les modes de responsabilité qui sont engagés en l’espèce[ref]Ibid aux pp 80-95.[/ref]. Cependant, toute cette argumentation a été livrée avec l’idée, en toile de fond, selon laquelle c’est l’impact sur la vie humaine et la souffrance qui découlent du crime qui constitue la cause première motivant la poursuite :

Madame la Présidente, Messieurs les juges, le Statut de Rome prohibe et punit les actes criminels les plus intolérables, les crimes de génocide, les crimes contre l’humanité et les crimes de guerre. Ces crimes se matérialisent sous plusieurs formes, mais ils ont tous un point commun : ils infligent un préjudice irrémédiable à la personne humaine dans sa chair ou son esprit, dans son âme et dans son identité.

[…]

Une telle attaque contre un bâtiment consacré à la religion et des monuments historiques s’inscrit dans la catégorie des crimes qui détruisent les racines d’une population entière et qui, de manière profonde et irrémédiable, affectent ses pratiques sociales et ses structures. Ceci est précisément la raison pour laquelle ces actes constituent un crime dans le cadre de l’article 8-2-e-iv du Statut de Rome[ref]Ibid aux pp 12-13. (emphasis added). The confirmation of charges decision reached by the Pre-Trial Chamber took note of this anthropocentric turn of the crime against cultural heritage, observing that “the Buildings/Structures played an important role in the life of the inhabitants of Timbuktu and that their destruction was considered as a serious matter and regarded by the local population as an aggression towards their faith”; see Confirmation of Charges, supra note 29 at 39.[/ref].

Bien que ces remarques aient une fonction politiquement stratégique, le fait pour le Procureur de mettre si nettement à l’avant-scène la dimension immatérielle de la destruction du patrimoine culturel à l’étape de la confirmation des charges était incohérent d’un point de vue historique, et, surtout, potentiellement contre-productif pour des poursuites à venir.

 

L’historique du crime d’attaque à l’encontre du patrimoine culturel

Malgré l’argumentation du Procureur en chef, la souffrance humaine et la situation des victimes ne constituent pas le fondement théorique du crime de destruction de biens culturels tel qu’il est consacré dans le Statut de Rome. D’un point de vue historique, ce crime n’a rien à voir avec des questions identitaires, le droit de participer à la vie culturelle, ou encore la liberté de conscience ou de religion. En réalité, l’interdiction de porter atteinte au patrimoine culturel est apparue bien avant le mouvement des droits de la personne.

C’est en 1758 qu’Emmerich de Vattel, un juriste et diplomate suisse, a commencé à codifier le droit de la guerre dans son ouvrage séminal « Le Droit des Gens ». Dans le paragraphe 168, « Quelles choses on doit épargner », il souligne l’émergence d’une nouvelle norme interdisant le pillage et la destruction gratuite du patrimoine culturel :

Pour quelque sujet que l’on ravage un pays, on doit épargner les Édifices qui font honneur à l’humanité, & qui ne contribuent point à rendre l’Ennemi puissant; les Temples, les Tombeaux, les Bâtiments publics, tous les Ouvrages respectables par leur beauté. Que gagne-t-on à les détruire? C’est se déclarer l’ennemi du Genre-humain, que de le priver de gaité de Cœur, de ces Monuments des Arts, de ces Modèles du Goût; comme Bélisaire le représentait à Totila Roi des Goths. Nous détestons encore aujourd’hui ces Barbares, qui détruisirent tant de Merveilles, quand ils inondèrent l’Empire Romain[ref]Emmerich de Vattel, « Le Droit des Gens ou principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux affaires des Nations et des Souverains » (Londres, 1758), vol. 2, livre III, ch. IX au para 168, en ligne : < http://lf-oll.s3.amazonaws.com/titles/1052/0586-02_Bk.pdf >, tel que cité dans Caroline Ehlert, « Prosecuting the Destruction of Cultural Property in International Criminal Law » (Leide : Maritnus Nijhoff, 2014) à la p 17.[/ref].

Néanmoins, de Vattel affirme également que « s’il est nécessaire de détruire les Édifices de cette nature, pour les opérations de la guerre, pour pousser les travaux d’un siège; on en a le droit, sans-doute[ref]Ibid.[/ref] ». C’est encore cette double approche quant à la destruction des biens culturels qui a cours en droit international. La règle de base de la Convention de La Haye de 1954 interdit de détruire des biens culturels ou d’en user à des fins militaires, sauf si une nécessité militaire l’exige[ref]Convention pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, 14 mai 1954, UNTS vol. 249, art 4.[/ref].

Cette interdiction a acquis force de loi pour l’armée de l’Union lors de la guerre de Sécession quand Abraham Lincoln a approuvé ce que les historiens ont appelé le Lieber Code en 1863. Son article 35 énonce que « les œuvres d’art classiques, les bibliothèques, les collections scientifiques, ou tout instrument précieux … doivent être protégés contre tout dommage évitable »[ref]« General Orders No. 100 : The Lieber Code, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field », préparé par Francis Lieber, adopté en tant que « General Orders No. 100 » par le Président Lincoln, 24 avril 1863, art 35.[/ref] [notre traduction]. Quelques décennies plus tard, en 1899, le Tsar Nicolas II a organisé la Première conférence de La Haye, dont le but était de revoir les lois et coutumes de la guerre telles qu’elles étaient régies par la Déclaration de Bruxelles de 1874, un texte resté lettre morte. L’Annexe à la Convention (II) concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre, adoptée à La Haye en 1899, contient des dispositions exigeant d’épargner les édifices consacrés aux cultes, à la bienfaisance et à l’éducation, aux arts et aux sciences[ref]« Convention (II) concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre », La Haye, 29 juillet 1899, arts 27, 56.[/ref]. En 1907 s’est tenue la Deuxième Conférence de la Paix à La Haye, pendant laquelle les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre ont été traitées à nouveau, résultant en la Convention (IV) de La Haye, qui fait maintenant partie du droit international coutumier[ref]Voir Conseil de sécurité de l’ONU, « Rapport du Secrétaire-général établi conformément au paragraphe 2 de la Résolution 808 (1993) du Conseil de sécurité », S/25704.[/ref]. L’article 27 du Règlement de la Convention (IV) de La Haye stipule ceci :

Dans les sièges et bombardements, toutes les mesures nécessaires doivent être prises pour épargner, autant que possible, les édifices consacrés aux cultes, aux arts, aux sciences et à la bienfaisance, les monuments historiques, les hôpitaux et les lieux de rassemblement de malades et de blessés, à condition qu’ils ne soient pas employés en même temps à un but militaire[ref]« Convention (IV) concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre et son Annexe : Règlement concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre », La Haye, 18 octobre 1907, art 27.[/ref].

Même si plusieurs autres traités plus complets visant la protection des biens culturels en cas de guerre ont été adoptés ultérieurement, comme la Convention de La Haye de 1954 et le Deuxième protocole de 1999 qui lui est lié, c’est cette disposition précise du Règlement de la Convention de 1907 qui est la source de la définition du crime d’attaque contre le patrimoine culturel qui se trouve dans le Statut de Rome. Cependant, à partir de 1907, presque quarante ans ont été nécessaires pour qu’émerge une vision partagée des droits de la personne en 1948, et les arguments à propos du lien intrinsèque entre les dimensions matérielles et immatérielles du patrimoine culturel n’ont été formulés que près d’un siècle plus tard – l’adoption de la Convention pour la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel immatériel par l’UNESCO n’a été adoptée qu’en 2003. Dans les faits, le concept de patrimoine culturel n’était pas un sujet de discussion en soi à l’époque. Par conséquent, l’affirmation du Procureur en chef selon laquelle l’impact considérable des attaques contre le patrimoine culturel sur les pratiques sociales et les structures d’une population « est précisément la raison pour laquelle ces actes constituent un crime dans le cadre de l’article 8(2)(e)(iv) du Statut de Rome » est une invention pure et simple sur le plan juridique[ref]« Transcription de l’audience de confirmation des charges, affaire Al Mahdi », supra note 58 à la p 12.[/ref].

Le crime d’attaque contre des biens protégés, selon la définition de la CPI, contient cinq éléments constitutifs, et chacun concerne la dimension matérielle des gestes posés, de façon cohérente avec la source historique du crime :

  1. L’auteur a lancé une attaque.
  2. L’objectif de l’attaque était un ou plusieurs bâtiments consacrés à la religion, à l’enseignement, à l’art, à la science ou à l’action caritative, des monuments historiques, des hôpitaux et des lieux où des malades ou des blessés sont rassemblés, qui n’étaient pas des objectifs militaires.
  3. L’auteur entendait prendre pour cible de son attaque ledit ou lesdits bâtiments consacrés à la religion, à l’enseignement, à l’art, à la science ou à l’action caritative, des monuments historiques, des hôpitaux et des lieux où des malades ou des blessés sont rassemblés, qui n’étaient pas des objectifs militaires.
  4. Le comportement a eu lieu dans le contexte de et était associé à un conflit armé ne présentant pas un caractère international.
  5. L’auteur avait connaissance des circonstances de fait établissant l’existence d’un conflit armé[ref]« Documents officiels de l’Assemblée des États Parties au Statut de Rome de la Cour pénale internationale, Première session, New York, 3-10 septembre 2002 » sous Éléments des crimes, art 8(2)(e)(iv).[/ref].

On peut déduire de cette liste que le fait de causer un préjudice ou de la souffrance à la population n’est pas un facteur pertinent dans la définition de cette offense. La souffrance humaine ne devrait pas être considérée dans le test visant à déterminer la gravité du crime à des fins de recevabilité, puisqu’en tenir compte reviendrait à redéfinir le crime lui-même d’attaque contre des biens protégés.

De plus, si cette interprétation anthropocentrique du Bureau du Procureur venait à se répandre, la CPI, et toutes les autres cours qui suivent son exemple, pourraient possiblement ignorer des instances de dommage et de destruction du patrimoine culturel qui n’affectent en rien les pratiques sociales ou culturelles d’une population spécifique. Il ne s’agit pas d’un scénario hypothétique, car c’est précisément ce qui s’est produit en 2001, avec la destruction des bouddhas de Bâmiyân, en Afghanistan.

 

Les bouddhas de Bâmiyân : la destruction d’« idoles » bouddhistes en pays musulman

Les bouddhas de Bâmiyân étaient deux immenses statues sises dans la vallée du même nom en Afghanistan, et elles figuraient sur la Liste indicative afghane des biens proposés pour l’inscription au patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO. Les experts estiment que l’érection de ces statues a eu lieu vers le Ve siècle de notre ère[ref]Xinriu Liu, « The Silk Road in World History », Oxford University Press, 2010, New York à la p 63.[/ref], et l’une d’elles a possiblement été « le plus gros bouddha debout au monde[ref]Ilona Bartsch, « Bâmiyân Buddhas in Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, ed by Claire Smith », Springer, 2014, New York à la p 744.[/ref] » [notre traduction]. Au pied de ces statues se trouvait un ensemble de monastères bouddhistes qui accueillaient croyants et visiteurs du monde entier[ref]Ibid.[/ref]. Ces monuments ont représenté pendant 1 500 ans une réalisation culturelle remarquable, tant pour les bouddhistes que les autres, particulièrement durant l’âge d’or de la route de la soie.

En 2001, les talibans étaient maîtres de plus de 90 % de l’Afghanistan, et la situation politique du pays avait changé du tout au tout[ref]Stephen Tanner, « Afghanistan: A Millitary History of Afghanistan from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban », Da Capo Press, 2009, Boston à la p 219.[/ref]. Leur régime était marqué par « l’absence absolue de liberté d’expression et l’interdiction totale des images »[ref]Francesco Francioni et Federico Lenzerini, « The Destruction of the Buddhas of Bâmiyân and International Law », 2003, 14:4 Eur J Intl L 619 à la p 624.[/ref] [notre traduction], des concepts issus, selon eux, de religions hérétiques. Le mollah Omar, chef taliban à l’époque, a poussé ses troupes à effacer toute trace de patrimoine culturel non musulman du territoire afghan[ref]Pierre Centlivres, « The Controversy over the Buddhas of Bâmiyân », 2008, 2 South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic J à la p 2.[/ref]. Cette politique a été renforcée par la signature d’un décret de la Cour suprême du pays ordonnant la destruction des bouddhas[ref]Francioni et Lenzerini, supra note 75 à la p 626.[/ref], qui furent dynamités pendant une période de 10 jours en mars 2001.

La communauté internationale fut consternée et scandalisée de ces évènements. En 2003, c’est en réaction directe à la « destruction tragique des bouddhas de Bâmiyân qui a affecté la communauté internationale dans son ensemble » qu’a été adoptée la Déclaration de l’UNESCO concernant la destruction intentionnelle du patrimoine culturel[ref]Déclaration de l’UNESCO concernant la destruction intentionnelle du patrimoine culturel, 32C/Res. 33, UNESCOR, 32e session, 2003, préambule.[/ref].

Une déclaration en particulier mérite ici notre attention. Le Directeur général de l’UNESCO de l’époque, Koïchiro Matsuura, a utilisé l’expression de « crimes contre la culture[ref]Francesco Bandarin, « Editorial », World Heritage Newsletter n. 30 (mai-juin 2001) à la p 1.[/ref] » [notre traduction] pour qualifier la destruction des statues. Il s’agissait là d’une déclaration purement rhétorique. D’abord, l’opération de destruction s’est faite en temps de paix, et il n’y a pas de crime contre le patrimoine culturel qui puisse être puni hors du cadre d’un conflit armé, du moins à l’échelle internationale. De plus, vu que l’Afghanistan n’a déposé son instrument d’adhésion au Statut de Rome que le 10 février 2003, ce n’est que le 1er mai 2003 que la CPI aurait acquis compétence pour punir les crimes commis dans ce pays ou par des ressortissants afghans.

Que se passerait-il si la destruction des bouddhas avait lieu aujourd’hui, dans le cadre d’un conflit armé? En un tel cas, le Bureau du Procureur de la CPI pourrait lancer une enquête, et trouverait alors de fortes similitudes entre la destruction des mausolées de Tombouctou et celle des bouddhas de Bâmiyân. Dans ces deux instances, les gestes procédaient d’une logique purement iconoclaste, manifestation d’une politique décrétant l’effacement de tout témoignage de la présence d’infidèles sur le territoire. Dans le cas des bouddhas, la Cour suprême afghane a affirmé sans détour que :

ces idoles étaient des dieux pour les infidèles, elles inspirent toujours le respect et pourraient peut-être même un jour être à nouveau vénérées comme des dieux. Le seul vrai dieu est Allah, et tous les faux dieux doivent être effacés[ref]Tel que cité dans Francioni et Lenzerini, supra note 75 à la p 626. [/ref]. [notre traduction]

Suivant une logique similaire, un porte-parole d’Ansar Dine est réputé avoir déclaré ceci après la destruction des mausolées maliens : « Le patrimoine mondial n’existe pas. Les infidèles ne doivent pas se mêler de nos affaires »[ref]Tel que cité dans Irina Bokova, « Culture in the Cross Hairs », The New York Times, 2 décembre 2012.[/ref] [notre traduction].

Tombouctou fait partie de la liste du patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO depuis 1988, alors que les bouddhas de Bâmiyân figuraient sur la liste indicative afghane[ref]Une liste indicative est un inventaire des biens que chaque État partie a l’intention de proposer pour inscription au Patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO. La liste indicative afghane peut être consultée au <http://whc.unesco.org/fr/etatsparties/af/> (consultée pour la dernière fois le 25 mai 2017).[/ref] et au moment de leur destruction, seule une formalité administrative les séparait du statut de site protégé du patrimoine mondial. D’un point de vue juridique, en revanche, le fait qu’un élément du patrimoine culturel ne figure pas sur la liste des sites protégés de l’UNESCO ne « saurait en aucune manière signifier qu’il n’a pas une valeur universelle exceptionnelle[ref]UNESCO, Convention concernant la protection du patrimoine mondial, culturel et naturel, 1972, art 12.[/ref] ». Les deux sites en question ici constituaient donc des éléments du patrimoine culturel d’une valeur universelle exceptionnelle, et par conséquent, leur endommagement ou leur disparition représente « un appauvrissement néfaste du patrimoine de tous les peuples du monde »[ref]Ibid, au préambule.[/ref].

La différence majeure entre ces deux situations est cependant la suivante : tandis que les mausolées visés à Tombouctou servaient à la population locale pour ses pratiques religieuses[ref]Supra note 29 au para 36.[/ref], il n’existe aucune trace de pratique du bouddhisme en Afghanistan depuis 1336[ref]Hamid Wahed Alikuzai, « A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes », Trafford Publishing, 2013, Bloomington (IN), vol. 14 à la p 123.[/ref]. La dimension immatérielle du crime, selon l’interprétation du Procureur en chef de la CPI, serait ainsi absente dans le cas des bouddhas; leur destruction n’aurait pu affecter les pratiques ou structures sociales de la population locale. Il manquerait donc, dans ce cas, ce que le Procureur en chef désigne comme le dénominateur commun des tous les crimes de guerre décrits dans le Statut de Rome, soit le fait qu’ils « infligent un préjudice irrémédiable à la personne humaine dans sa chair ou dans son esprit et dans son identité »[ref]« Transcription de l’audience de confirmation des charges, affaire Al Mahdi », supra note 58 aux pp 12-13.[/ref]. Si l’on suit ce raisonnement, la destruction des bouddhas, contrairement à celle des mausolées de Tombouctou, ne pourrait être traitée comme un crime de guerre par la CPI.

Le fait d’examiner les conséquences d’un crime contre le patrimoine culturel pour la population afin de déterminer la gravité de celui-ci a l’effet pervers de rendre potentiellement inadmissibles devant la CPI certaines situations de destruction de sites pourtant protégés par le droit international pour leur valeur universelle. Par exemple, la destruction hypothétique du site Maya de Chichen Itza, au Mexique, dans le cadre d’un conflit armé échapperait ainsi à une poursuite devant la CPI, selon l’interprétation du Procureur, puisque les Mayas sont une civilisation disparue. Le même résultat serait attendu dans le cas des « villes oubliées » de Syrie, un groupe d’une quarantaine de villages antiques « regroupés au sein de huit parcs, [qui] offrent un témoignage remarquable des modes de vie ruraux et villageois de l’Antiquité tardive et de l’époque byzantine[ref]UNESCO, « Villages antiques du Nord de la Syrie », <http://whc.unesco.org/fr/list/1348/>.[/ref] », pour la simple raison qu’elles ont été abandonnées, comme leur nom l’indique, il y a plusieurs siècles. Qui plus est, si c’est réellement l’effet sur les pratiques et structures sociales qui constitue « précisément la raison pour laquelle ces actes constituent un crime dans le cadre de l’article 8-2-e-iv du Statut de Rome[ref]Ibid, supra note 58.[/ref] », est-ce que ces actes cesseraient de constituer un crime de guerre si la population se mettait d’accord sur la destruction de statues ou de lieux de culte historiques? De même, cesseraient-ils d’être un crime si la défense arrivait à prouver que la population locale n’avait aucun attachement aux biens culturels attaqués? Il serait contraire à l’intérêt général d’exclure de tels gestes de la définition du crime d’attaque contre le patrimoine culturel, et le Bureau du Procureur devrait tâcher de ne pas redéfinir les contours de cette offense.

Dans le jugement et la peine de l’affaire Al Mahdi, la Chambre de première instance VII a été généralement fidèle aux origines historiques et à la délimitation juridique du crime[ref]Supra note 11 aux para 13-20.[/ref]. Elle a tenu compte de la valeur symbolique et affective des bâtiments détruits pour les habitants de Tombouctou au moment d’évaluer la gravité du crime sous l’angle de la détermination de la peine appropriée[ref]Ibid au para 79.[/ref]. Ce faisant, la Chambre préliminaire a par contre reconnu que « bien que fondamentalement graves, les crimes contre les biens […] sont généralement moins [graves] que les crimes contre les personnes[ref]Ibid au para 77.[/ref] ».

 

Conclusion

La crise au Mali s’inscrit dans la vague de conflits armés balayant le Sahel et le Moyen-Orient, notamment en Syrie, en Irak et au Liban. Même si ces conflits ont souvent des racines laïques – dans le cas du Mali, une rébellion menée par les Touaregs contre l’administration centrale de Bamako – ils ont en commun d’avoir été détournés par des groupes fondamentalistes aux noms divers (Ansar Dine, AQIM, MUJAO, Daesh) mais aux velléités semblables, soit d’imposer aux populations locales une nouvelle vision de la société, de l’ordre et de la religion. Cette entreprise implique nécessairement de nier leur histoire et leur identité, par la destruction et le pillage du patrimoine culturel.

Dans le contexte où la destruction de sites historiques ou religieux fait maintenant partie du répertoire des groupes armés, l’affaire Al Mahdi a le mérite d’avoir remis sous les projecteurs le crime d’attaque contre le patrimoine culturel et d’avoir envoyé un message clair sur ses conséquences juridiques. Le jugement constitue un précédent d’une grande importance, et il légitime la qualification comme crimes de guerre d’actes similaires dans d’autre conflits à travers la planète.

Toutefois, même si l’Accusation avait raison d’argumenter que « la destruction intentionnelle de biens culturels est par nature un crime sérieux »[ref]Observations du Procureur sur la peine, supra note 16 au para 18.[/ref], il n’est point exact d’affirmer comme elle l’a fait que cette destruction vise toujours « à effacer l’identité culturelle et les traditions d’une population »[ref]Ibid.[/ref]. Même s’il s’agit d’un scénario moins connu, la destruction du patrimoine culturel peut avoir des causes autres que la volonté d’effacer l’identité d’une population et de réécrire l’histoire. Les forces armées syriennes, par exemple, ont bombardé la forteresse médiévale du Crac des Chevaliers, un site inscrit au patrimoine mondial, en juillet 2013, mais cette attaque s’inscrivait dans le cadre de la reconquête de la ville de Homs[ref]American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), “Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing the Current Status of Syria’s World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery” (Washington: 2014) à 39. Voir aussi, Channel 4 News, “Syria: inside the Crac des Chevaliers crusader castle” (31 March 2014), en ligne: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9tqmxe4Ilw>. Une vidéo montre les signes d’occupation présumée par les forces rebelles syriennes et les effets du bombardement du château, apparemment par les forces de Bachar al-Assad.[/ref].

Les populations se sentent le plus souvent victimes du pillage, de l’endommagement ou de la destruction de ce qu’elles considèrent être leur patrimoine culturel. Cette réalité ne doit pas être oubliée, et la CPI s’assure par ses procédures que les victimes aient voix au chapitre et qu’elles soient, s’il y a lieu, compensées pour leur perte. Toutefois, et c’est l’idée derrière le présent article, l’interprétation anthropocentrique du crime mise de l’avant dans l’affaire Al Mahdi à la confirmation des charges fait seulement mine de s’accorder avec l’historique de ce crime, alors qu’elle risque plutôt de compromettre d’éventuelles poursuites en limitant sa portée.

* Chargée de cours en droit international, Université des Sciences Appliquées de La Haye. Doctorat (Institut universitaire européen), LLM (Cambridge). L’auteure peut être jointe à l’adresse suivante : [email protected]. La première version de cet article est parue en septembre 2016, et la plus récente le 10 janvier 2017.

† Avant de se diriger vers la traduction juridique, Étienne a étudié les lettres françaises et la traduction (2010) ainsi que le droit (2013) à l’Université McGill. Il est membre du Barreau du Québec depuis 2015.

About the Author

Marina Lostal is a lecturer in International Law at The Hague University, an ad hoc lecturer in International Criminal Law at the Universidad
Torcuato di Tella in Buenos Aires, and a consultant for Geneva Call in the study on the relationship between the protection of cultural property and
non-state actors. She holds an LLM from the University of Cambridge and a PhD from the European University Institute. She is admitted to practice in
Spain and has assisted the Karadzic stand-by defence team (ICTY) during the final phase of the trial.

The Misplaced Emphasis on the Intangible Dimension of Cultural Heritage in the Al Mahdi Case at the ICC

 In Article

By Marina Lostal*

Abstract

The proceedings against Al Mahdi constitute a landmark precedent in the prosecution of crimes against cultural heritage, inside and outside the International Criminal Court. This article examines the Prosecution’s overarching strategy at the confirmation of charges stage, where emphasis was placed on the consequences that the destruction of the shrines in Timbuktu had for the local population. It is suggested that this anthropocentric line of reasoning was historically inaccurate and strategically short-sighted. Using the example of the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, the article explains how, in the long run, this anthropocentric approach can restrict the capacity to prosecute crimes committed against cultural heritage per se, and undermine the conceptual foundation for the special protection given to cultural property.

French Translation

L’affaire Al Mahdi constitue un précédent historique dans la poursuite des crimes contre le patrimoine culturel, tant pour la Cour Pénale Internationale que pour les autres instances. Cet article examine la stratégie globale de l’Accusation au stade de la confirmation des charges, où l’accent a été mis sur les conséquences pour la population locale qu’a entraînées la destruction des sanctuaires de Tombouctou. L’article suggère que le raisonnement anthropocentrique qui sous-tend cet argumentaire est historiquement sans fondement et qu’il s’agit d’une stratégie peu clairvoyante. À l’aide de l’exemple de la destruction des bouddhas de Bâmiyân, l’article explique comment, à long terme, cette approche anthropocentrique peut restreindre la capacité de poursuivre les auteurs de crimes visant spécifiquement le patrimoine culturel et miner le fondement conceptuel du régime de protection propre aux biens culturels.

Spanish Translation

El proceso contra Al Mahdi supone un precedente histórico en la persecución de los crímenes contra el patrimonio cultural, dentro y fuera de la Corte Penal Internacional. Este artículo examina la estrategia global de la fiscalía en la fase de confirmación de los cargos, en la que se puso énfasis en las consecuencias que la destrucción de los templos de Tombuctú tuvo para la población local. El artículo sugiere que este razonamiento antropocentrista fue inexacto históricamente y corto de miras desde un punto de vista estratégico. Tomando como ejemplo de la destrucción de los budas de Bamiyán, el artículo explica cómo, a largo plazo, este enfoque antropocéntrico puede restringir la capacidad de perseguir crímenes cometidos contra el patrimonio cultural per se, así como socavar las bases conceptuales de la protección especial que se debe dar al patrimonio cultural.

Introduction

Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, an ethnic Tuareg and Malian citizen in his thirties, is recognized as possessing a deep knowledge of Islam; indeed, he was a teacher of Islam prior to his membership in the militant Islamist group Ansar Dine (‘Defenders of the Faith’) and his involvement in the destruction of historic and religious sites in Timbuktu. He was arrested in Niger and surrendered to the International Criminal Court (ICC) in September 2015, the first suspect to be transferred to The Hague in connection with the armed conflict in Mali. More significantly, he was also the first person to be charged solely with the crime of directing attacks against cultural heritage. Some previous cases involving the damage and destruction of cultural or historic sites had been dealt with by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,[ref]For example, Jokic and Strugar were prosecuted at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) for the shelling of the Old Town of Dubrovnik during the Balkan war. See: The Prosecutor v Miodrag Jokić, IT-01-42/1, Sentencing Judgment (18 March 2004) (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Trial Chamber), online: ICTY <www.icty.org>; The Prosecutor v Pavle Strugar, IT-01-42, Judgment (31 Jan 2005) (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Trial Chamber), online: ICTY <www.icty.org>.[/ref] but never before had a person been brought to international justice on these grounds alone. Hence, the Al Mahdi case is bound to become a reference for future prosecutions of attacks against cultural heritage and, more broadly, for cases that centre on crimes not against persons but against property. As such, its legacy should be closely scrutinized.

Precisely because the charges against Al Mahdi centred solely on attacks against cultural heritage, the decision of the Office of the Prosecutor to devote attention and resources to this case provoked controversy, with some labelling it a “victimless crime”.[ref]See, for example, Jonathan Jones, “Destroying priceless art is vile and offensive – but it is not a war crime”, The Guardian (22 August 2016), online: <www.guardian.co.uk>.; and Marie Forestier, “ICC War Criminals: Destroying Shrines is Worse than Rape”, Foreign Policy (22 August 2016), online: <www.foreignpolicy.com>.[/ref] This is not an accurate description as the destruction and damage of historical and religious buildings can lead to personal and material harm. In fact, the ICC Trial Chamber approved nine applications from persons wishing to participate as victims in the proceedings.[ref]One of them withdrew its application at the beginning of the trial. See, for example, Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Decision on Victim Participation at Trial and on Common Legal Representation of Victims (8 June 2016) (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>; and Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Second Report on Applications to Participate in the Proceedings (25 July 2016) (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>. See also Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 art 68(3) (entered into force 1 July 2002) [ICC Statute].[/ref] However, as this article argues, the Prosecution’s focus at the confirmation of charges hearing on the “intangible” side of the events – the extent to which the population has been affected by the destruction – was not concurrent with the history of this crime and was strategically short-sighted.

An anthropocentric reading, that is, one that focuses on the impact it has on persons, of the crime sets limits on the prosecution’s range of action. This is something of which to be mindful because, as the sole precedent for the prosecution of crimes against cultural heritage and not persons, the Al Mahdi case will have consequences for the future internal functioning of the ICC when dealing with crimes against cultural heritage, other types of property or the environment. This is particularly important as the Office of the Prosecutor has recently indicated that it wishes to focus on acts that harm the environment.[ref]International Criminal Court, Office of the Prosecutor, Policy Paper on Case Selection and Prioritisation, 15 Sept 2016 at para 7. [/ref] The case is also bound to set an example for the potential prosecution of international crimes in Syria and Iraq, where the extent of destruction and looting of cultural heritage is unprecedented.[ref]See, for example, Alexander A Bauer, “Editorial: The Destruction of Heritage in Syria and Iraq and Its Implications” (2015) 22:1 Intl J Cultural Property 1 at 1–6. [/ref] Lastly, given that fundamentalist groups have now incorporated the destruction of cultural heritage into their rhetoric and modus operandi, as seen in Libya, Egypt and Yemen,[ref]See, for example, “UNESCO Director-General deplores destruction of parts of ancient city of Baraqish, calls for protection of Yemen’s heritage”, UNESCO News (13 Sept 2015), online: <www.unesco.org>; “UNESCO Director-General Condemns Destruction to the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo, Egypt”, UNESCO News (24 Jan 2015), online: <www.unesco.org>. [/ref] the Al Mahdi case will also serve as a point of reference in potential domestic proceedings against perpetrators.[ref]Article 28 of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict directs State Parties to “take, within the framework of their ordinary criminal jurisdiction, all necessary steps to prosecute and impose penal or disciplinary sanctions upon those persons, of whatever nationality, who commit or order to be committed a breach of the present Convention” (Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240 art 28 (entered into force 7 Aug 1956)). The provisions on domestic criminal prosecutions and individual criminal responsibility were further elaborated upon in Chapter 4 of the 1999 Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention. See Second Protocol to The Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 26 March 1999, UNESCO Doc. HC/1999/7 (entered into force 9 March 2004). [/ref]

The first section of this article explains the background of the conflict in Mali and Al Mahdi’s role in the destruction of cultural heritage in Timbuktu. The second explores the significance of Mali’s cultural heritage to its population and the way this intangible side of cultural heritage has been increasingly acknowledged in international law. The third one turns to an analysis of how, at the confirmation of charges hearing, the Office of the Prosecutor rested its submissions on an anthropocentric reading of the crime, and contends that this line of reasoning is not in conformity with either the legal history of the prohibition of attacks against cultural heritage or all its goals. Consequently, the Prosecution’s reading should be regarded as a legal innovation. Using the example of the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, the section concludes by arguing that such legal innovation is not particularly helpful since, in the long run, it can restrict the capacity to prosecute crimes committed against cultural heritage that has no obvious significance for the local population.

 

The conflict in Mali and Al Mahdi’s role in the destruction of cultural heritage

In April 2012, Ansar Dine, Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (known by its French acronym, MUJAO) overran Kidal, Gao and Timbuktu, the three northern regions of Mali,[ref]Isaline Bergamaschi, “French Military Intervention in Mali: Inevitable, Consensual yet Insufficient” (2013)  2(2):20 Intl J Sec & Dev 1 at 2;  Maryne Rondot, “The ICC’s Investigation into Alleged War Crimes in Mali” (2013) Institute for the Study of Human Rights, University of Columbia, New York: American Non-Governmental Organizations Coalition for the International Criminal Court (AMICC) at 2-3. [/ref] amidst what at the time was a non-international armed conflict. All these groups wished to impose a radical interpretation of Sharia law, which not only included amputations and beheadings for what they considered as serious crimes,[ref]Human Rights Watch, “Collapse, Conflict and Atrocity in Mali: Human Rights Watch Reporting on the 2012-2013 Armed Conflict and its Aftermath” (2014) at 51. [/ref] but also the destruction of certain religious and historic sites due to their impious nature.[ref]Anna K. Zajac, “Between Sufism and Salafism: The Rise of Salafi Tendencies after the Arab Spring and Its Implications” (2014) 29:2 Hemispheres 9 at 97–98.[/ref]

Al Mahdi was appointed head of the Hisbah, a morality police whose function was, in his words:

[t]o ensure the promotion of virtue and the prevention of vice … reforming the apparent evils in the streets, such as the failure [of women] to wear the veil, revealing their feminine charms, social mix[ing], smoking, photos, and posters displaying, for example, banned slogans.[ref]ICC, “Collection of footage presented by the OTP during the Confirmation of Charges hearing” (1 March 2015), online: https://www.icc-cpi.int/mali/al-mahdi; see also, ICC, Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi, Judgment and Sentence (27 September 2016).[/ref]

The mandate of the Hisbah also included deciding on whether or not to destroy the shrines, mosques and antiquities of Timbuktu. This was significant, given that Timbuktu is an emblematic city. Historically, it “played a crucial role in the expansion of Islam in the region”,[ref] Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Judgement and Sentence (public), (27 September 2016) at para 78 (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber VIII), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>. [/ref] and it is a part of UNESCO’s World Heritage List of sites deemed of outstanding universal value for the whole of humanity.[ref]See Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 16 Nov 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 at preamble and art 1 (entered into force 17 Dec 1975) [World Heritage Convention].[/ref]

From the outset, Al Mahdi admitted his guilt.[ref]See Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Dépôt de l’Accord sur l’aveu de culpabilité de M. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi (19 Aug 2016) (International Criminal Court, Preliminary Chamber), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int> [Accord sur l’aveu].[/ref] As his trial began, he sought the pardon of the people of Timbuktu with the following words:

It is with deep regret and with great pain I have to enter a guilty plea and all the charges brought against me are accurate and correct. I am really sorry, I am really remorseful and I regret all the damage that my actions have caused.[ref]Prosecutor v. Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, “Al Mahdi Case: accused makes an admission of guilt at trial opening” (22 August 2016), online: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Regsy114ovI&feature=youtu.be>.[/ref]

As this was the first time that an accused person had pleaded guilty at the ICC, the Trial Chamber dedicated some time to clarifying the parameters of this line of action in the Court. The ICC Statute does not allow plea bargaining – that is, reaching an agreement with the prosecution whereby the defendant pleads guilty to some or all of the charges in exchange (for example) for a reduced sentence. While Article 65(5) of the ICC Statute permits negotiations between the prosecution and the defence, the results of these discussions are not binding on the Court. In this case, the Prosecution recommended a sentence of between nine and eleven years’ imprisonment.[ref]Accord sur l’aveu, supra note 14, at 19; see also, Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Public redacted version of “Prosecution’s submissions on sentencing” in the Al Mahdi case (22 July 2016), at para 65 (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber VIII), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int> [Prosecution’s submissions on sentencing]..[/ref] Although the Trial Chamber could have imposed up to thirty years, Al Mahdi was finally sentenced to nine. In reaching this decision, the Trial Chamber considered the admission of guilt to be a mitigating circumstance[ref]The Trial Chamber found four other mitigating circumstances: his cooperation with the Prosecution; the remorse and empathy expressed for the victims; his initial reluctance to carry out the destruction; and his good behaviour in detention. Supra note 11 at para 109.[/ref] and gave it substantial weight, although it also noted that the admission was “made against a backdrop of overwhelming evidence”.[ref]Ibid at para 100.[/ref]

The legal basis for the crime committed by Al Mahdi lies in Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the ICC Statute, which gives the following definition of the war crime of attacks against property:

Intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not military objectives.[ref]The ICC Statute contains an identical provision applicable in international armed conflicts in Article 8(2)(b)(ix) (See ICC Statute, supra note 3 at Article 8(2)(b)(ix)). [/ref]

The Trial Chamber decided that no re-characterization of the charges was necessary under Article 8(2)(e)(xii), which punishes instead “destroying or seizing the property of an adversary unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of the conflict”, since this article refers to the more general crime against civilian property.[ref]Supra note 11 at para 12. [/ref] Albeit lex specialis, the reader should note that the war crime concerning attacks against cultural heritage in the ICC Statute suffers from a far-from negligible blind spot: the lack of reference to movable objects.[ref]Micaela Frulli, “The Criminalization of Offences against Cultural Heritage in Times of Armed Conflict: The Quest for Consistency” (2001) 22:1 EJIL 203 at 212.[/ref] Cultural property may also take the form of objects such as paintings, figurines, relics or, as in the case of Timbuktu, ancient manuscripts. Indeed, UNESCO reports that “4,203 manuscripts from the Ahmed Baba research centre were lost”[ref]“Damage to Timbuktu’s cultural heritage worse than first estimated reports UNESCO mission”, UNESCO News (7 June 2013), online: <http://en.unesco.org/news/damage-timbuktu%E2%80%99s-cultural-heritage-worse-first-estimated-reports-unesco-mission>.[/ref] during the conflict and around 300,000 were in urgent need of conservation. Nevertheless, this loss of Malian cultural heritage was not taken into account at the ICC proceedings.

The Trial Chamber found that Al Mahdi had been involved in the destruction of ten historical and religious sites,[ref]Namely: Sidi Mahmoud Ben Omar Mohamed Aquit; Cheick Mohamed Mahmoud Al Arawani;  Cheikh Sidi Mokhtar Ben Sidi Mouhammad Ben Cheick Alkabir;  Alpha Moya; Cheick Sidi Ahmed Ben Amar Arragadi;  Cheick Mouhamad El Micky; Cheick Abdoul Kassim Attouaty; Ahamed Fulane and Bahaber Babadié; and the mosque of Sidi Yahia.[/ref] and all but the Sheikh Mohamed Mahmoud Al Arawani Mausoleum were world heritage sites. At first, Al Mahdi advised against destroying the mausoleums “so as to maintain [good] relations between the population and the occupying groups.”[ref]Supra note 11 at para 36.[/ref] However, after receiving instructions from Ag Ghaly (the leader of Ansar Dine) and Abou Zeid (the governor of Timbuktu during its occupation by the armed groups), he agreed to proceed with the destruction and was present at each incident. He decided on the order in which the destruction was carried out, and he even drafted a sermon justifying the attacks that was read out at Friday prayers.[ref]Ibid at para 37.[/ref]

More specifically, Al Mahdi admitted to having been involved in the destruction of nine mausoleums and the door of the mosque of Sidi Yahia.[ref]Procureur c Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15 Mandat d’arrêt (publique expurgée), (18 September 2015) at 3 (Cour Pénale Internationale, Chambre Préliminaire I), online : ICC < https://www.icc-cpi.int>.[/ref] The buildings were often surrounded by security cordons of armed men to ensure that the destruction took place without disruption. Although Al Mahdi’s degree of involvement varied, he directly participated in the destruction of the Alpha Moya Mausoleum, the Sheikh Sidi Ahmed Ben Amar Arragadi Mausoleum and the two mausoleums adjoining the Djingareyber Mosque, the Ahmed Fulane Mausoleum and the Bahaber Babadié Mausoleum[ref]Supra note 11 at para 38.[/ref] – he even recommended the use of a bulldozer on the latter. As for the Sidi Yahia Mosque, it was later established that only its door had been destroyed. Nevertheless, this door carried particular meaning for the local population: it had been sealed since time immemorial because it was thought to protect against the evil eye. Indeed, “some witnesses started crying when they saw the damage”;[ref]“Timbuktu’s Sidi Yahia mosque ’attacked by Mali militants’”, BBC News (2 July 2012), online: < http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18675539>.[/ref] they believed that “opening the door [would] herald misfortune”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] In light of this, the Pre-Trial Chamber of the ICC took the view that “[t]hese buildings were cherished by the community, were used for religious practices […] and embodied the identity of the city”.[ref]Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges against Al Faqi Al Mahdi (public) (24 March 2016) at 23, para 11 (International Criminal Court, Pre-Trial Chamber I), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>.[/ref] Al Mahdi personally purchased the pickaxes used at the site with Hisbah funds, and he justified the destruction of the door to the media as a way of “eradicating superstition, heresy and all things or subterfuge which can lead to idolatry.”[ref]Supra note 11 at para 38(viii).[/ref]

Al Mahdi is currently awaiting the reparation stage of the proceedings, where the Trial Chamber will decide on some form of compensation, rehabilitation or symbolic measures for the victims.

 

The intangible nature of the heritage destroyed in Mali

Timbuktu is sometimes referred to as the ‘City of the 333 (Sufi) Saints’; these saints are believed to lie buried in its sixteen mausoleums. It also houses thousands of sacred manuscripts, many dating back to the 13th century, and contains three ancient mosques – Djingrayber, Sidi Yahia (both affected by the conflict) and Sankoré.[ref]Direction Nationale du Patrimoine Culture & Ministère de la Culture, Rapport: Etat actuel de conservation du bien Tombouctou (République du Mali : Direction Nationale du Patrimoine Culture et Ministère de la Culture,  2014) at 2.[/ref] Sufism, one of the many different currents within Islam, is accused by followers of Salafism (the creed espoused by fundamentalist groups) of being polytheist.[ref]Supra note 10 at paras 97-98.[/ref] It was the so-called ‘idolatrous’ nature of these mausoleums and mosques that led to the destruction of several of them between May and July 2012.[ref]ICC, Situation in Mali: Article 53(1) Report (16 January 2013) at 11. [/ref]

Al Mahdi was instructed to observe the behavior of the local population and pilgrims at these sites, and to warn against their practices in an attempt to stop the religious rites.[ref]Supra note 11 at para 35.[/ref] For example, the Sheikh Sidi El Mokhtar Ben Sidi Mouhammad Al Kabir Al Kounti Mausoleum was a popular destination for pilgrims from across Mali and beyond; the Alpha Moya Mausoleum was regularly visited by Muslims in order “to pray and make offerings;”[ref]Ibid at para 38(iv).[/ref] the Sheikh Mouhamad El Mikki Mausoleum represented “a place of spiritual retreat and reflection;”[ref]Ibid at para 38(v).[/ref] and the two mausoleums attached to the Djingareyber Mosque were used twice a week for religious purposes.[ref]Ibid at para 38(ix).[/ref] As the Trial Chamber acknowledged, these sites:

were of great importance to the people of Timbuktu, who admired them and were attached to them. They reflected their commitment to Islam and played a psychological role to the extent of being perceived as protecting the people of Timbuktu.[ref]Ibid at para 78.[/ref]

One unprecedented aspect of the Al Mahdi case that deserves scrutiny is the attention paid to the impact that the destruction of the shrines and mosques had on the population of Timbuktu. During the confirmation of charges hearing, a crucial stage in the proceedings,[ref]Put roughly, at the confirmation of charges, the Pre-Trial Chamber acts as a gatekeeper pronouncing on whether the case is admissible. Its decision is based, inter alia, on the gravity of the crime – See s 17 and 61 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, UN Doc A/CONF 183/9 [ICC Statute]. [/ref] the Prosecution highlighted the intangible nature of cultural heritage. The early instruments applicable to armed conflicts, such as the 1907 IV Hague Regulations on the Laws and Customs of War on Land (1907 IV Hague Regulations) and the landmark 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954 Hague Convention), had not really taken this aspect into account. As the discourse of human rights became mainstream, the approach to cultural objects changed. Whereas, previously, it was common to refer to such buildings and objects as ‘cultural property’, now it is more appropriate to refer to ‘cultural heritage’, an expression that captures its immaterial dimension.[ref]See Lyndel V Prott & Patrick J O’Keefe, “‘Cultural Heritage’ or ‘Cultural Property’?” (1992) 1:2 International Journal of Cultural Property 307.[/ref]

It has since become a truism that the tangible and intangible nature of cultural heritage are often two sides of the same coin. According to the Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the right of everyone to “take part in cultural life” enshrined in Article 15(1)(c) of the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is “associated with the use of cultural goods”.[ref]UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General comment no 21, ESC 43rd, UN Doc E/C12/GC/21 (2009) at s 15(b).  [/ref] Former UN Special Rapporteur on Cultural Rights, Farida Shaheed, was of the view that “access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage as a human right is a necessary and complementary approach to the  preservation/safeguard[ing] of cultural heritage”.[ref]Farida Shaheed, Report of the independent expert in the field of cultural rights Farida Shadeed, HRC, 2011, A/HRC/17/38 at para 2.[/ref] The present Special Rapporteur, Karima Bennoune, has given priority to the intentional destruction of cultural heritage as a violation of human rights and, in a related report, has acknowledged that “cultural heritage is to be understood as the resources enabling the cultural identification and development processes of individuals and groups, which they, implicitly or explicitly, wish to transmit to future generations”.[ref]Karima Bennoune, Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, HRC, 2016, A/HRC/31/59 at para 47.[/ref] In line with this reasoning, UNESCO adopted two treaties emphasizing the immaterial side of cultural heritage: the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2003[ref]Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 1 (entered into force 20 April 2006), online: <treaties.un.org >.[/ref] and the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions in 2005.[ref]Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, 20 October 2005, 2440 UNTS 311 online: <treaties.un.org>.[/ref]

It is often useful to acknowledge the intimate connection that generally exists between the material and immaterial dimensions of cultural heritage. For example, recognition of the symbolic weight of cultural heritage can play a crucial role in devising peace processes and reconciliation strategies.[ref]See Dacia Viejo-Rose, “Reconstructing Heritage in the Aftermath of Civil War: Re-Visioning the Nation and the Implications of International Involvement” (2013) 7:2 Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 125; Marina Lostal & Emma Cunliffe, “Cultural heritage that heals: factoring in cultural heritage discourses in the Syrian peacebuilding process” (2016) 7:2-3 The Historic Environment: Policy & Practice 248.[/ref] The impact of the destruction of cultural heritage on individuals and the community is also relevant for determining the form and amount of reparations owed to victims, and for assessing the gravity of the crime when passing sentence. In fact, the Trial Chamber noted at the Al Mahdi trial that the “symbolic and emotional value for the inhabitants of Timbuktu [was] relevant in assessing the gravity of the crime committed”[ref]Supra note 11 at para 79.[/ref] and, given its world heritage listing, the attack also affected “people throughout Mali and the international community”.[ref]Ibid at para 80.[/ref]

In contrast to this general trend, however, focusing on the intangible side of cultural heritage during the confirmation of charges phase, as happened in the Al Mahdi case, is not a particularly helpful long-term strategy for the prosecution of such crimes. This anthropocentric focus, as we shall see, constitutes a legal innovation that is not only historically inaccurate but, most importantly, may narrow the scope of the protection afforded to tangible cultural heritage.

 

The Prosecution’s strategy at the confirmation of charges: “What is at stake here is not just walls and stones”

The confirmation of charges at the ICC is an initial part of the proceedings in which the Pre-Trial Chamber must determine “whether there is sufficient evidence to establish substantial grounds to believe that the person committed each of the crimes charged”[ref]ICC Statute, supra note 3 at s 61(7).[/ref] and, if so, to confirm those charges. At this stage, the Pre-Trial Chamber may also pronounce on whether the case at hand meets the ‘gravity threshold’, according to which, if the case is not of sufficient gravity to justify further action by the Court, it will be declared inadmissible.[ref]Ibid, s 17(1)(d), 19.[/ref] In a previous instance, the Pre-Trial Chamber conceded that “all crimes that fall within the subject-matter jurisdiction of the Court [such as the destruction of cultural heritage] are serious”,[ref]Decision Pursuant to article 15 of the Rome Statute on the Authorization of an Investigation into the Situation in the Republic of Kenya, ICC-01/09 Pre-Trial Chamber (31 March 2010) at para 56.  The gravity test for admissibility purposes must not be confused with the considerations that the Trial Chamber makes in order to determine the appropriate sentence; these are two different tests.[/ref] but that the gravity threshold requirement acted as an “additional safeguard which prevents the Court from investigating, prosecuting and trying peripheral cases”.[ref]Ibid. See also Margaret M. de Guzman, “The International Criminal Court’s Gravity Jurisprudence at Ten” (2013) 12:3 Global Studies Law Review 475.[/ref]

Given that the Al Mahdi case represents a historical first, in that it was solely centred on the damage and destruction of cultural heritage, and taking into account the ICC’s current crisis of legitimacy,[ref]Iain Macleod & Shehzad Charania, “Three challenges for the International Criminal Court” (16 November 2015), OUPblog (blog), online: <https://blog.oup.com/2015/11/three-challenges-international-criminal-court/>.[/ref] the gravity threshold must have been a particular concern for the Office of the Prosecutor – even more so in light of the ongoing criticisms it received for devoting attention to a crime against property. Amnesty International and the International Federation for Human Rights, for example, expressed “some public reservations that the ICC had advanced his case while other crimes [in Mali], such as the murder, rape, and torture of civilians, had not received the same degree of attention”.[ref]Brian I Daniels, “Is the destruction of cultural property a war crime?”, Apollo (28 November 2016) online: <https://www.apollo-magazine.com/is-the-destruction-of-cultural-property-a-war-crime/>.[/ref] Perhaps wary of the perception that crimes against property are too detached from human suffering, the Chief Prosecutor of the ICC, Fatou Bensouda – immediately after the transfer of Al Mahdi to The Hague – referred to the attacks against the mausoleums as a “callous assault on the dignity and identity of entire populations, their religious and historical roots”,[ref] Fatou Bensouda, Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, following the transfer of the first suspect in the Mali investigation: “Intentional attacks against historic monuments and buildings dedicated to religion are grave crimes” (26 September 2015), online: <https://www.icc-cpi.int/pages/item.aspx?name=otp-stat-26-09-2015> (emphases added). [/ref] and further added that “[t]he inhabitants of Northern Mali [are] the main victims of these attacks”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] This political statement acquired a legal dimension when the Prosecution followed this anthropocentric line of reasoning at the confirmation of charges hearing. Bensouda submitted:

Let us be clear: What is at stake here is not just walls and stones. The destroyed mausoleums were important from a religious point of view, from an historical point of view and from an identity point of view.[ref]ICC, Al Mahdi Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges Hearing (1 March 2016) at 13.[/ref]

The Prosecution went on to address a number of necessary technical concerns, such as the five elements of the war crime against cultural heritage in relation to the accused,[ref]Ibid at 73-79.[/ref] and the modes of liability applicable to Al Mahdi.[ref]Ibid at 80-95.[/ref] However, this was placed in a context where the impact on human lives and human suffering was emphasized as the driving force behind the prosecution of the crime:

Madam President, your Honours, the Rome Statute prohibits and punishes the most reprehensible criminal acts: Crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. These crimes can be perpetrated in various forms, but they all have one common denominator: They inflict irreparable damage to the human persons in his or her body, mind, soul and identity.

[…]

Such an attack against buildings dedicated to religion and historic monuments falls into the category of crimes that destroy the roots of an entire people and profoundly and irremediably affect its social practices and structures. This is precisely why such acts constitute a crime under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute.[ref]Ibid at 12–13 (emphasis added). The confirmation of charges decision reached by the Pre-Trial Chamber took note of this anthropocentric turn of the crime against cultural heritage, observing that “the Buildings/Structures played an important role in the life of the inhabitants of Timbuktu and that their destruction was considered as a serious matter and regarded by the local population as an aggression towards their faith”; see Confirmation of Charges, supra note 29 at 39.[/ref]

Albeit politically strategic, affording such prominence to the intangible dimension of the destruction of cultural heritage at the confirmation of charges was historically inaccurate and, most importantly, potentially counterproductive for future prosecutions.

 

The History of the Prohibition of Attacks Against Cultural Heritage

Notwithstanding the Chief Prosecutor’s statement, concrete human suffering and victimization are not the rationale behind the crime against cultural heritage as enshrined in the ICC Statute. Historically, the existence of this crime has not been linked to questions of identity, the human right to take part in cultural life, or freedom of thought or religion. In fact, the existence of a prohibition of attacks against cultural heritage predates the human rights movement altogether.

Emerich de Vattel, an 18th-century Swiss jurist and diplomat, began codifying the laws of war in his major work, Les Droits des Gens (1758). In paragraph 168, ‘What things are to be spared’, he identified the emergence of a new norm prohibiting the pillage and wanton destruction of cultural property:

For whatever cause a country is ravaged, we ought to spare those edifices which do honour to human society, and do not contribute to increase the enemy’s strength — such as temples, tombs, public buildings, and all works of remarkable beauty. What advantage is obtained by destroying them? It is declaring one’s self an enemy to mankind, thus wantonly to deprive them of these monuments of art and models of taste; and in that light Belisarius represented the matter to Tittila, king of the Goths. We still detest those barbarians who destroyed so many wonders of art, when they overran the Roman Empire.[ref]Emerich de Vattel, Les Droits des Gens (London: 1758) at para 168, cited in Caroline Ehlert, Prosecuting the Destruction of Cultural Property in International Criminal Law (Leiden: Maritnus Nijhoff, 2014) at 17.[/ref]

Nevertheless, he also contended that if it was “necessary to destroy edifices of that nature in order to carry on the operations of war, or to advance the works in a siege, we have an undoubted right to take such a step”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] This is essentially the dual approach that international law follows today in respect to cultural property. The basic rule of the 1954 Hague Convention is that cultural property and its surroundings shall not be made the object of an attack or be used for military purposes unless it is required by military necessity.[ref]1954 Hague Convention on Cultural Property, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240 art 4. [/ref]

This prohibition became binding instructions for the Union Army during the American Civil War when Abraham Lincoln sanctioned the so-called ‘Lieber Code’ of 1863. Article 35 stated that “classical works of art, libraries, scientific collections, or precious instruments … must be secured against all avoidable injury”.[ref]General Orders No. 100 : The Lieber Code, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, prepared by Francis Lieber promulgated as General Orders No. 100 by President Lincoln, 24 April 1863 art 35.[/ref] Later, in 1899, Tsar Nicholas II convened the First Hague Peace Conference whose goal was to revise the laws and customs of war laid down in the 1874 Brussels Declaration, an instrument that had never entered into force. The 1899 Annex to The Hague Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land contained provisions demanding respect for institutions dedicated to religion, charity and education, the arts and sciences.[ref]Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague II); July 29, 1899, arts. 27 and 56.[/ref] In 1907 a Second International Peace Conference revisited the laws and customs of war. These were adopted in the IV Hague Regulations, which now represent customary international law.[ref]See UN Security Council, Report of the Secretary-General (S/25704).[/ref] Article 27 of the 1907 IV Hague Regulations states:

In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not being used at the time for military purposes.[ref]International Conferences (The Hague), Hague Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and Its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 18 October 1907.[/ref]

There have been later instruments dedicated to the protection of cultural property in armed conflict, such as the 1954 Hague Convention and its 1999 Second Protocol, that are more comprehensive, but Article 27 of the 1907 IV Hague Regulations is the provision that inspired the definition of the war crime of directing attacks against cultural heritage that is enshrined in the ICC Statute. In 1907, however, a general acceptance of the concept of international human rights was decades away (i.e. 1948), and discourses on the intrinsic connection between the tangible and intangible aspects of cultural heritage only appeared around a century later (i.e. the adoption of the UNESCO Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage took place in 2003). In fact, cultural heritage was not even a topic in and of itself. As such, the Chief Prosecutor’s affirmation in the Al Mahdi case that the profound effect wrought on a people’s social practices and structures “is precisely why such acts [of destruction] constitute a crime under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute” is a legal invention.[ref]Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges, supra note 58 at 12.[/ref]

The ICC’s set of five conditions that need to be proven in order to establish whether a crime against cultural heritage has been committed present a tangible definition, and are thus more consistent with the legal past of this prohibition:

  1. The perpetrator directed an attack;
  2. The object of the attack was one or more buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals or places where the sick and wounded are collected, which were not military objectives;
  3. The perpetrator intended such building or buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals or places where the sick and wounded are collected, which were not military objectives, to be the object of the attack;
  4. The conduct took place in the context of and was associated with an armed conflict not of an international character;
  5. The perpetrator was aware of factual circumstances that established the existence of an armed conflict.[ref] Elements of Crimes, Article 8(2)(e)(iv) “War crime of attacking protected objects” in Official Records of the Assembly of States\Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First session, New York, 3-10 September 2002 .[/ref]

It follows that inflicting harm or suffering on the population is immaterial to the existence of the crime of attacks against cultural heritage. Human suffering should not be put forward as a requirement to prove that the crime meets the gravity threshold for admissibility purposes as this would amount to revisiting the definition of the crime.

Moreover, if the anthropocentric reading espoused by the Office of the Prosecution took hold, the ICC (and all courts that follow its example) would potentially be turning a blind eye to episodes of damage and destruction that do not affect the social or cultural practices of a specific population. This is not an improbable scenario: it actually took place in 2001, when the Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan were destroyed.

 

The Buddhas of Bamiyan: The Destruction of Buddhist ‘Idols’ in a Muslim Country

The Buddhas of Bamiyan were two monumental statues – situated in the Bamiyan valley in Afghanistan – which had been placed on the Afghan Tentative List of World Heritage in expectation of entry in the renowned World Heritage List. It is estimated that they were built around the 5th century,[ref]Xinriu Liu, The Silk Road in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010) at 63.[/ref] and one may have been “the largest [standing] Buddha … in the world”.[ref]Ilona Bartsch, Bamiyan Buddhas in Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, ed by Claire Smith (New York: Springer, 2014) at 744.[/ref] At the feet of these gigantic statues lay a community of Buddhist monasteries, which welcomed worshippers and sightseers from around the world.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] These monuments represented a historic cultural landmark for Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike for around 1,500 years, particularly during the golden era of the Silk Road.

In 2001, the Taliban had gained control over 90 percent of Afghanistan, and the situation had changed dramatically.[ref]Stephen Tanner, Afghanistan: A Millitary History of Afghanistan from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban (Boston: Da Capo Press, 2009) at 219.[/ref] Taliban rule was noted for its “absolute lack of freedom of expression and [its] total ban on pictures”,[ref]Francesco Francioni & Federico Lenzerini, “The Destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan and International Law” (2003)14:4 Eur J Intl L 619 at 624.[/ref] which it regarded as the products of infidel religions. Mullah Omar, leader of the Taliban at the time, encouraged the removal of all traces of non-Islamic cultural heritage from Afghan territory.[ref]Pierre Centlivres, “The Controversy over the Buddhas of Bamiyan” (2008) 2 South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic J at 2.[/ref] This policy was reinforced by the publication of a decree by the Afghan Supreme Court ordering the destruction of the Buddhas,[ref]Francioni & Lenzerini, supra note 75 at 626.[/ref] and the statues were consequently dynamited over a period of ten days in March 2001.

The international community reacted with shock and outrage. In 2003, UNESCO adopted the Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage as an explicit reaction to the “tragic destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan that affected the international community as a whole”.[ref]Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, 32C/Res. 33, UNESCOR, 32nd Sess, (2003) preamble.[/ref]

One statement in particular deserves attention here. The destruction of the Buddhas led the then-UNESCO Director-General, Koïchiro Matsuura, to speak of “crimes against culture”.[ref]Francesco Bandarin, “Editorial” World Heritage Newsletter n. 30 (May-June 2001) at 1.[/ref] This was pure rhetoric. Firstly, the destruction of the Buddhas happened during peacetime and there is no crime against cultural heritage enforceable outside armed conflict, at least at the international level. Secondly, Afghanistan deposited its instrument of accession to the ICC Statute on 10 February 2003 and, in principle, the Court could only start exercising jurisdiction over crimes committed on its territory or by its nationals after 1 May 2003.

But what would happen if the destruction of the Buddhas occurred during an armed conflict today? In such a case, the ICC’s Office of the Prosecutor could launch an investigation, and if it did so, it would find that the destruction of the shrines in Mali and the Buddhas of Bamiyan share some relevant similarities. Both events represented acts of sheer iconoclasm and both followed a policy decreeing the removal of all ‘infidel’ traces. In relation to the Buddhas, the text of the Afghan Supreme Court decree clearly stated:

[T]hese idols have been gods of the infidels, and these are respected even now and perhaps maybe turned into gods again. The real God is only Allah, and all other false gods should be removed.[ref]Cited in Francioni & Lenzerini, supra note 75 at 626.[/ref]

In a similar vein, a spokesperson for Ansar Dine reportedly declared in the aftermath of the destruction of the shrines in Mali: “There is no world heritage. It does not exist. Infidels must not get involved in our business.”[ref]Cited in Irina Bokova, “Culture in the Cross Hairs”, The New York Times (2 December 2012).[/ref]

While Timbuktu was added to the World Heritage List in 1988, the Buddhas of Bamiyan were part of the Afghan Tentative List of World Heritage[ref]Tentative lists are inventories of properties that each State Party to the World Heritage Convention intend to present for nomination for the World Heritage List. The current Afghan tentative list can be accessed at http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/af (last visited on 25 May 2017).[/ref] and were missing a formal requirement for their definitive inscription on the World Heritage List at the time they were destroyed. However, technically speaking, the fact that a property constituting cultural heritage has not been included on the World Heritage List “shall in no way be construed to mean that it does not have an outstanding universal value”.[ref]Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 16 November 1972, art 12.[/ref] Thus, both sites represented cultural heritage of outstanding universal value and, as a consequence, its deterioration or disappearance equally constitute “a harmful impoverishment of the heritage of all the nations of the world”.[ref]Ibid at preamble.[/ref]

There is, however, a major difference between the two episodes: whereas the affected shrines in Timbuktu were used by the local population in their religious practices,[ref]Supra note 29 at para 36.[/ref] there are no records indicating the presence of Buddhism in Afghanistan after 1336.[ref]Hamid Wahed Alikuzai, A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes (Bloomington, Indiana: Trafford Publishing, 2013) vol 14 at 123. [/ref] The intangible dimension of the crime as understood by the Chief Prosecutor would therefore be missing in the case of the Buddhas: their destruction could not affect the social practices and structures or the cultural roots of the local people. It would lack what the Chief Prosecutor has pointed to as the common denominator of all crimes detailed by the ICC Statute – that is, that “[t]hey inflict irreparable damage to the human persons in his or her body, mind, soul and identity”.[ref]Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges, supra note 58 at 12–13.[/ref] According to this reasoning, unlike the shrines of Timbuktu, the destruction of the Buddhas would not warrant prosecution as a war crime before the ICC.

Turning consequences for the local population into ingredients for the gravity threshold of the crime against cultural heritage may have the adverse effect of rendering instances of the destruction of sites protected under international law (due to their importance for the whole of humanity) inadmissible. For example, given the disappearance of the Mayan civilization, the (hypothetical) obliteration in armed conflict of the Mayan site of Chichen Itza in Mexico would not square with the reading proposed for this crime. The same would happen in the case of the destruction of the so-called ‘forgotten cities’ in Syria, a group of “40 villages grouped in eight parks situated in north-western Syria [which provide a] remarkable testimony to rural life in late Antiquity and during the Byzantine period”,[ref]UNESCO, Ancient Villages of Northern Syria: Description, online: <whc.unesco.org/en/list/1348>.[/ref] which, as their name suggests, were abandoned many centuries ago. What is more, if damage to social practices and structures was “precisely why such acts constitute a crime under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute”,[ref]Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges, supra note 58 at 12–13.[/ref] would it stop being a war crime if all the population agreed through a referendum to the defacing of statues or demolition of historical places of worship? Likewise, would it stop being a crime if the defence was able to prove that the population did not feel any attachment to the cultural properties? It is in no one’s interest to exclude such episodes from the definition of the crime and, for this reason, the Office of the Prosecution should avoid re-defining its boundaries.

In the judgment and sentence of Al Mahdi, Trial Chamber VII was relatively faithful to the history and legal contours of the crime.[ref]Supra note 11 at paras 13–20.[/ref] It considered the symbolic and emotional value of the destroyed buildings for the inhabitants of Timbuktu as relevant in assessing the gravity of the crime and thus in determining the appropriate sentence.[ref]Ibid at para 79.[/ref] However, in so doing, the Chamber acknowledged that “even if inherently grave, crimes against property are generally of lesser gravity than crimes against persons”.[ref]Ibid at para 77.[/ref]

 

Conclusion

The conflict in Mali is part of a larger pattern of conflicts taking place across the Sahel and the Middle East, including in Syria, Iraq and Libya. Despite their initially secular motivations (in the case of Mali, a Tuareg-led rebellion against the central administration in Bamako), these conflicts have been hijacked by fundamentalist groups with different names (Ansar Dine, AQIM, MUJAO, ISIS) but a similar purpose: that of imposing a new reading of society, order and religion on the populations of these regions. This necessitates the eradication and denial of their past and their identity, and entails the destruction (and looting) of cultural heritage.

In a context where the arsenal of war now includes the destruction of historical and religious sites, the Al Mahdi case has put the crime of directing attacks against cultural heritage back on the map and sent a clear warning of the legal consequences. It has provided a unique legal precedent, and legitimized the inclusion and treatment of such acts of destruction in other conflicts around the world as war crimes.

Nevertheless, while the Prosecution was right to contend that the “intentional destruction of cultural property is by nature a serious crime”,[ref]Prosecution’s submissions on sentencing, supra note 15 at 18.[/ref] this destruction – contrary to the Prosecution’s submission – is not always “aimed at erasing the cultural identity and heritage of a population”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] Although it is a less widely known scenario, destruction of cultural property may also happen for reasons unrelated to a population’s identity and the wish to re-write history. For example, the Syrian armed forces bombarded the medieval fortress of Crac des Chevaliers (a Syrian world heritage site) in July 2013, but it did so in pursuit of its quest to reconquer the city of Homs.[ref]American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), “Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing the Current Status of Syria’s World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery” (Washington: 2014) at 39. See also, Channel 4 News, “Syria: inside the Crac des Chevaliers crusader castle” (31 March 2014), online: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9tqmxe4Ilw>. A video shows the signs of alleged occupation by Syrian rebel forces and the effects of the bombardment of the castle, reportedly by Bashar al-Assad’s forces.[/ref]

Local peoples, more often than not, feel victimised by the looting, damage or disappearance of what they consider to be ‘their’ heritage. This is something that should not be neglected, and there are mechanisms within the ICC to ensure that the views of victims are heard throughout the proceedings and, if appropriate, that they are compensated for their loss. However, as this article argues, the anthropocentric reading of the Al Mahdi proceedings at the confirmation of charges stage merely paid lip service to the history behind this crime and compromised future prosecutions by limiting the ambit of its application.

* Lecturer in International Law, The Hague University of Applied Sciences; PhD (EUI); LLM (Cambridge) author may be contacted at [email protected]. The first version of this article was submitted in September 2016, and its last on January 10 2017.

About the Author

Marina Lostal is a lecturer in International Law at The Hague University, an ad hoc lecturer in International Criminal Law at the Universidad
Torcuato di Tella in Buenos Aires, and a consultant for Geneva Call in the study on the relationship between the protection of cultural property and
non-state actors. She holds an LLM from the University of Cambridge and a PhD from the European University Institute. She is admitted to practice in
Spain and has assisted the Karadzic stand-by defence team (ICTY) during the final phase of the trial.

The Misplaced Emphasis on the Intangible Dimension of Cultural Heritage in the Al Mahdi Case at the ICC

By Marina Lostal*

Abstract

The proceedings against Al Mahdi constitute a landmark precedent in the prosecution of crimes against cultural heritage, inside and outside the International Criminal Court. This article examines the Prosecution’s overarching strategy at the confirmation of charges stage, where emphasis was placed on the consequences that the destruction of the shrines in Timbuktu had for the local population. It is suggested that this anthropocentric line of reasoning was historically inaccurate and strategically short-sighted. Using the example of the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, the article explains how, in the long run, this anthropocentric approach can restrict the capacity to prosecute crimes committed against cultural heritage per se, and undermine the conceptual foundation for the special protection given to cultural property.

French Translation

L’affaire Al Mahdi constitue un précédent historique dans la poursuite des crimes contre le patrimoine culturel, tant pour la Cour Pénale Internationale que pour les autres instances. Cet article examine la stratégie globale de l’Accusation au stade de la confirmation des charges, où l’accent a été mis sur les conséquences pour la population locale qu’a entraînées la destruction des sanctuaires de Tombouctou. L’article suggère que le raisonnement anthropocentrique qui sous-tend cet argumentaire est historiquement sans fondement et qu’il s’agit d’une stratégie peu clairvoyante. À l’aide de l’exemple de la destruction des bouddhas de Bâmiyân, l’article explique comment, à long terme, cette approche anthropocentrique peut restreindre la capacité de poursuivre les auteurs de crimes visant spécifiquement le patrimoine culturel et miner le fondement conceptuel du régime de protection propre aux biens culturels.

Spanish Translation

El proceso contra Al Mahdi supone un precedente histórico en la persecución de los crímenes contra el patrimonio cultural, dentro y fuera de la Corte Penal Internacional. Este artículo examina la estrategia global de la fiscalía en la fase de confirmación de los cargos, en la que se puso énfasis en las consecuencias que la destrucción de los templos de Tombuctú tuvo para la población local. El artículo sugiere que este razonamiento antropocentrista fue inexacto históricamente y corto de miras desde un punto de vista estratégico. Tomando como ejemplo de la destrucción de los budas de Bamiyán, el artículo explica cómo, a largo plazo, este enfoque antropocéntrico puede restringir la capacidad de perseguir crímenes cometidos contra el patrimonio cultural per se, así como socavar las bases conceptuales de la protección especial que se debe dar al patrimonio cultural.

Introduction

Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, an ethnic Tuareg and Malian citizen in his thirties, is recognized as possessing a deep knowledge of Islam; indeed, he was a teacher of Islam prior to his membership in the militant Islamist group Ansar Dine (‘Defenders of the Faith’) and his involvement in the destruction of historic and religious sites in Timbuktu. He was arrested in Niger and surrendered to the International Criminal Court (ICC) in September 2015, the first suspect to be transferred to The Hague in connection with the armed conflict in Mali. More significantly, he was also the first person to be charged solely with the crime of directing attacks against cultural heritage. Some previous cases involving the damage and destruction of cultural or historic sites had been dealt with by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,[ref]For example, Jokic and Strugar were prosecuted at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) for the shelling of the Old Town of Dubrovnik during the Balkan war. See: The Prosecutor v Miodrag Jokić, IT-01-42/1, Sentencing Judgment (18 March 2004) (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Trial Chamber), online: ICTY <www.icty.org>; The Prosecutor v Pavle Strugar, IT-01-42, Judgment (31 Jan 2005) (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Trial Chamber), online: ICTY <www.icty.org>.[/ref] but never before had a person been brought to international justice on these grounds alone. Hence, the Al Mahdi case is bound to become a reference for future prosecutions of attacks against cultural heritage and, more broadly, for cases that centre on crimes not against persons but against property. As such, its legacy should be closely scrutinized.

Precisely because the charges against Al Mahdi centred solely on attacks against cultural heritage, the decision of the Office of the Prosecutor to devote attention and resources to this case provoked controversy, with some labelling it a “victimless crime”.[ref]See, for example, Jonathan Jones, “Destroying priceless art is vile and offensive – but it is not a war crime”, The Guardian (22 August 2016), online: <www.guardian.co.uk>.; and Marie Forestier, “ICC War Criminals: Destroying Shrines is Worse than Rape”, Foreign Policy (22 August 2016), online: <www.foreignpolicy.com>.[/ref] This is not an accurate description as the destruction and damage of historical and religious buildings can lead to personal and material harm. In fact, the ICC Trial Chamber approved nine applications from persons wishing to participate as victims in the proceedings.[ref]One of them withdrew its application at the beginning of the trial. See, for example, Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Decision on Victim Participation at Trial and on Common Legal Representation of Victims (8 June 2016) (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>; and Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Second Report on Applications to Participate in the Proceedings (25 July 2016) (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>. See also Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 3 art 68(3) (entered into force 1 July 2002) [ICC Statute].[/ref] However, as this article argues, the Prosecution’s focus at the confirmation of charges hearing on the “intangible” side of the events – the extent to which the population has been affected by the destruction – was not concurrent with the history of this crime and was strategically short-sighted.

An anthropocentric reading, that is, one that focuses on the impact it has on persons, of the crime sets limits on the prosecution’s range of action. This is something of which to be mindful because, as the sole precedent for the prosecution of crimes against cultural heritage and not persons, the Al Mahdi case will have consequences for the future internal functioning of the ICC when dealing with crimes against cultural heritage, other types of property or the environment. This is particularly important as the Office of the Prosecutor has recently indicated that it wishes to focus on acts that harm the environment.[ref]International Criminal Court, Office of the Prosecutor, Policy Paper on Case Selection and Prioritisation, 15 Sept 2016 at para 7. [/ref] The case is also bound to set an example for the potential prosecution of international crimes in Syria and Iraq, where the extent of destruction and looting of cultural heritage is unprecedented.[ref]See, for example, Alexander A Bauer, “Editorial: The Destruction of Heritage in Syria and Iraq and Its Implications” (2015) 22:1 Intl J Cultural Property 1 at 1–6. [/ref] Lastly, given that fundamentalist groups have now incorporated the destruction of cultural heritage into their rhetoric and modus operandi, as seen in Libya, Egypt and Yemen,[ref]See, for example, “UNESCO Director-General deplores destruction of parts of ancient city of Baraqish, calls for protection of Yemen’s heritage”, UNESCO News (13 Sept 2015), online: <www.unesco.org>; “UNESCO Director-General Condemns Destruction to the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo, Egypt”, UNESCO News (24 Jan 2015), online: <www.unesco.org>. [/ref] the Al Mahdi case will also serve as a point of reference in potential domestic proceedings against perpetrators.[ref]Article 28 of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict directs State Parties to “take, within the framework of their ordinary criminal jurisdiction, all necessary steps to prosecute and impose penal or disciplinary sanctions upon those persons, of whatever nationality, who commit or order to be committed a breach of the present Convention” (Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240 art 28 (entered into force 7 Aug 1956)). The provisions on domestic criminal prosecutions and individual criminal responsibility were further elaborated upon in Chapter 4 of the 1999 Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention. See Second Protocol to The Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 26 March 1999, UNESCO Doc. HC/1999/7 (entered into force 9 March 2004). [/ref]

The first section of this article explains the background of the conflict in Mali and Al Mahdi’s role in the destruction of cultural heritage in Timbuktu. The second explores the significance of Mali’s cultural heritage to its population and the way this intangible side of cultural heritage has been increasingly acknowledged in international law. The third one turns to an analysis of how, at the confirmation of charges hearing, the Office of the Prosecutor rested its submissions on an anthropocentric reading of the crime, and contends that this line of reasoning is not in conformity with either the legal history of the prohibition of attacks against cultural heritage or all its goals. Consequently, the Prosecution’s reading should be regarded as a legal innovation. Using the example of the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan, the section concludes by arguing that such legal innovation is not particularly helpful since, in the long run, it can restrict the capacity to prosecute crimes committed against cultural heritage that has no obvious significance for the local population.

 

The conflict in Mali and Al Mahdi’s role in the destruction of cultural heritage

In April 2012, Ansar Dine, Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (known by its French acronym, MUJAO) overran Kidal, Gao and Timbuktu, the three northern regions of Mali,[ref]Isaline Bergamaschi, “French Military Intervention in Mali: Inevitable, Consensual yet Insufficient” (2013)  2(2):20 Intl J Sec & Dev 1 at 2;  Maryne Rondot, “The ICC’s Investigation into Alleged War Crimes in Mali” (2013) Institute for the Study of Human Rights, University of Columbia, New York: American Non-Governmental Organizations Coalition for the International Criminal Court (AMICC) at 2-3. [/ref] amidst what at the time was a non-international armed conflict. All these groups wished to impose a radical interpretation of Sharia law, which not only included amputations and beheadings for what they considered as serious crimes,[ref]Human Rights Watch, “Collapse, Conflict and Atrocity in Mali: Human Rights Watch Reporting on the 2012-2013 Armed Conflict and its Aftermath” (2014) at 51. [/ref] but also the destruction of certain religious and historic sites due to their impious nature.[ref]Anna K. Zajac, “Between Sufism and Salafism: The Rise of Salafi Tendencies after the Arab Spring and Its Implications” (2014) 29:2 Hemispheres 9 at 97–98.[/ref]

Al Mahdi was appointed head of the Hisbah, a morality police whose function was, in his words:

[t]o ensure the promotion of virtue and the prevention of vice … reforming the apparent evils in the streets, such as the failure [of women] to wear the veil, revealing their feminine charms, social mix[ing], smoking, photos, and posters displaying, for example, banned slogans.[ref]ICC, “Collection of footage presented by the OTP during the Confirmation of Charges hearing” (1 March 2015), online: https://www.icc-cpi.int/mali/al-mahdi; see also, ICC, Prosecutor v. Al Mahdi, Judgment and Sentence (27 September 2016).[/ref]

The mandate of the Hisbah also included deciding on whether or not to destroy the shrines, mosques and antiquities of Timbuktu. This was significant, given that Timbuktu is an emblematic city. Historically, it “played a crucial role in the expansion of Islam in the region”,[ref] Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Judgement and Sentence (public), (27 September 2016) at para 78 (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber VIII), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>. [/ref] and it is a part of UNESCO’s World Heritage List of sites deemed of outstanding universal value for the whole of humanity.[ref]See Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 16 Nov 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 at preamble and art 1 (entered into force 17 Dec 1975) [World Heritage Convention].[/ref]

From the outset, Al Mahdi admitted his guilt.[ref]See Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Dépôt de l’Accord sur l’aveu de culpabilité de M. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi (19 Aug 2016) (International Criminal Court, Preliminary Chamber), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int> [Accord sur l’aveu].[/ref] As his trial began, he sought the pardon of the people of Timbuktu with the following words:

It is with deep regret and with great pain I have to enter a guilty plea and all the charges brought against me are accurate and correct. I am really sorry, I am really remorseful and I regret all the damage that my actions have caused.[ref]Prosecutor v. Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, “Al Mahdi Case: accused makes an admission of guilt at trial opening” (22 August 2016), online: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Regsy114ovI&feature=youtu.be>.[/ref]

As this was the first time that an accused person had pleaded guilty at the ICC, the Trial Chamber dedicated some time to clarifying the parameters of this line of action in the Court. The ICC Statute does not allow plea bargaining – that is, reaching an agreement with the prosecution whereby the defendant pleads guilty to some or all of the charges in exchange (for example) for a reduced sentence. While Article 65(5) of the ICC Statute permits negotiations between the prosecution and the defence, the results of these discussions are not binding on the Court. In this case, the Prosecution recommended a sentence of between nine and eleven years’ imprisonment.[ref]Accord sur l’aveu, supra note 14, at 19; see also, Prosecutor v Ahmad al Faqi al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Public redacted version of “Prosecution’s submissions on sentencing” in the Al Mahdi case (22 July 2016), at para 65 (International Criminal Court, Trial Chamber VIII), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int> [Prosecution’s submissions on sentencing]..[/ref] Although the Trial Chamber could have imposed up to thirty years, Al Mahdi was finally sentenced to nine. In reaching this decision, the Trial Chamber considered the admission of guilt to be a mitigating circumstance[ref]The Trial Chamber found four other mitigating circumstances: his cooperation with the Prosecution; the remorse and empathy expressed for the victims; his initial reluctance to carry out the destruction; and his good behaviour in detention. Supra note 11 at para 109.[/ref] and gave it substantial weight, although it also noted that the admission was “made against a backdrop of overwhelming evidence”.[ref]Ibid at para 100.[/ref]

The legal basis for the crime committed by Al Mahdi lies in Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the ICC Statute, which gives the following definition of the war crime of attacks against property:

Intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not military objectives.[ref]The ICC Statute contains an identical provision applicable in international armed conflicts in Article 8(2)(b)(ix) (See ICC Statute, supra note 3 at Article 8(2)(b)(ix)). [/ref]

The Trial Chamber decided that no re-characterization of the charges was necessary under Article 8(2)(e)(xii), which punishes instead “destroying or seizing the property of an adversary unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of the conflict”, since this article refers to the more general crime against civilian property.[ref]Supra note 11 at para 12. [/ref] Albeit lex specialis, the reader should note that the war crime concerning attacks against cultural heritage in the ICC Statute suffers from a far-from negligible blind spot: the lack of reference to movable objects.[ref]Micaela Frulli, “The Criminalization of Offences against Cultural Heritage in Times of Armed Conflict: The Quest for Consistency” (2001) 22:1 EJIL 203 at 212.[/ref] Cultural property may also take the form of objects such as paintings, figurines, relics or, as in the case of Timbuktu, ancient manuscripts. Indeed, UNESCO reports that “4,203 manuscripts from the Ahmed Baba research centre were lost”[ref]“Damage to Timbuktu’s cultural heritage worse than first estimated reports UNESCO mission”, UNESCO News (7 June 2013), online: <http://en.unesco.org/news/damage-timbuktu%E2%80%99s-cultural-heritage-worse-first-estimated-reports-unesco-mission>.[/ref] during the conflict and around 300,000 were in urgent need of conservation. Nevertheless, this loss of Malian cultural heritage was not taken into account at the ICC proceedings.

The Trial Chamber found that Al Mahdi had been involved in the destruction of ten historical and religious sites,[ref]Namely: Sidi Mahmoud Ben Omar Mohamed Aquit; Cheick Mohamed Mahmoud Al Arawani;  Cheikh Sidi Mokhtar Ben Sidi Mouhammad Ben Cheick Alkabir;  Alpha Moya; Cheick Sidi Ahmed Ben Amar Arragadi;  Cheick Mouhamad El Micky; Cheick Abdoul Kassim Attouaty; Ahamed Fulane and Bahaber Babadié; and the mosque of Sidi Yahia.[/ref] and all but the Sheikh Mohamed Mahmoud Al Arawani Mausoleum were world heritage sites. At first, Al Mahdi advised against destroying the mausoleums “so as to maintain [good] relations between the population and the occupying groups.”[ref]Supra note 11 at para 36.[/ref] However, after receiving instructions from Ag Ghaly (the leader of Ansar Dine) and Abou Zeid (the governor of Timbuktu during its occupation by the armed groups), he agreed to proceed with the destruction and was present at each incident. He decided on the order in which the destruction was carried out, and he even drafted a sermon justifying the attacks that was read out at Friday prayers.[ref]Ibid at para 37.[/ref]

More specifically, Al Mahdi admitted to having been involved in the destruction of nine mausoleums and the door of the mosque of Sidi Yahia.[ref]Procureur c Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15 Mandat d’arrêt (publique expurgée), (18 September 2015) at 3 (Cour Pénale Internationale, Chambre Préliminaire I), online : ICC < https://www.icc-cpi.int>.[/ref] The buildings were often surrounded by security cordons of armed men to ensure that the destruction took place without disruption. Although Al Mahdi’s degree of involvement varied, he directly participated in the destruction of the Alpha Moya Mausoleum, the Sheikh Sidi Ahmed Ben Amar Arragadi Mausoleum and the two mausoleums adjoining the Djingareyber Mosque, the Ahmed Fulane Mausoleum and the Bahaber Babadié Mausoleum[ref]Supra note 11 at para 38.[/ref] – he even recommended the use of a bulldozer on the latter. As for the Sidi Yahia Mosque, it was later established that only its door had been destroyed. Nevertheless, this door carried particular meaning for the local population: it had been sealed since time immemorial because it was thought to protect against the evil eye. Indeed, “some witnesses started crying when they saw the damage”;[ref]“Timbuktu’s Sidi Yahia mosque ’attacked by Mali militants’”, BBC News (2 July 2012), online: < http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18675539>.[/ref] they believed that “opening the door [would] herald misfortune”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] In light of this, the Pre-Trial Chamber of the ICC took the view that “[t]hese buildings were cherished by the community, were used for religious practices […] and embodied the identity of the city”.[ref]Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges against Al Faqi Al Mahdi (public) (24 March 2016) at 23, para 11 (International Criminal Court, Pre-Trial Chamber I), online: ICC <www.icc-cpi.int>.[/ref] Al Mahdi personally purchased the pickaxes used at the site with Hisbah funds, and he justified the destruction of the door to the media as a way of “eradicating superstition, heresy and all things or subterfuge which can lead to idolatry.”[ref]Supra note 11 at para 38(viii).[/ref]

Al Mahdi is currently awaiting the reparation stage of the proceedings, where the Trial Chamber will decide on some form of compensation, rehabilitation or symbolic measures for the victims.

 

The intangible nature of the heritage destroyed in Mali

Timbuktu is sometimes referred to as the ‘City of the 333 (Sufi) Saints’; these saints are believed to lie buried in its sixteen mausoleums. It also houses thousands of sacred manuscripts, many dating back to the 13th century, and contains three ancient mosques – Djingrayber, Sidi Yahia (both affected by the conflict) and Sankoré.[ref]Direction Nationale du Patrimoine Culture & Ministère de la Culture, Rapport: Etat actuel de conservation du bien Tombouctou (République du Mali : Direction Nationale du Patrimoine Culture et Ministère de la Culture,  2014) at 2.[/ref] Sufism, one of the many different currents within Islam, is accused by followers of Salafism (the creed espoused by fundamentalist groups) of being polytheist.[ref]Supra note 10 at paras 97-98.[/ref] It was the so-called ‘idolatrous’ nature of these mausoleums and mosques that led to the destruction of several of them between May and July 2012.[ref]ICC, Situation in Mali: Article 53(1) Report (16 January 2013) at 11. [/ref]

Al Mahdi was instructed to observe the behavior of the local population and pilgrims at these sites, and to warn against their practices in an attempt to stop the religious rites.[ref]Supra note 11 at para 35.[/ref] For example, the Sheikh Sidi El Mokhtar Ben Sidi Mouhammad Al Kabir Al Kounti Mausoleum was a popular destination for pilgrims from across Mali and beyond; the Alpha Moya Mausoleum was regularly visited by Muslims in order “to pray and make offerings;”[ref]Ibid at para 38(iv).[/ref] the Sheikh Mouhamad El Mikki Mausoleum represented “a place of spiritual retreat and reflection;”[ref]Ibid at para 38(v).[/ref] and the two mausoleums attached to the Djingareyber Mosque were used twice a week for religious purposes.[ref]Ibid at para 38(ix).[/ref] As the Trial Chamber acknowledged, these sites:

were of great importance to the people of Timbuktu, who admired them and were attached to them. They reflected their commitment to Islam and played a psychological role to the extent of being perceived as protecting the people of Timbuktu.[ref]Ibid at para 78.[/ref]

One unprecedented aspect of the Al Mahdi case that deserves scrutiny is the attention paid to the impact that the destruction of the shrines and mosques had on the population of Timbuktu. During the confirmation of charges hearing, a crucial stage in the proceedings,[ref]Put roughly, at the confirmation of charges, the Pre-Trial Chamber acts as a gatekeeper pronouncing on whether the case is admissible. Its decision is based, inter alia, on the gravity of the crime – See s 17 and 61 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, UN Doc A/CONF 183/9 [ICC Statute]. [/ref] the Prosecution highlighted the intangible nature of cultural heritage. The early instruments applicable to armed conflicts, such as the 1907 IV Hague Regulations on the Laws and Customs of War on Land (1907 IV Hague Regulations) and the landmark 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954 Hague Convention), had not really taken this aspect into account. As the discourse of human rights became mainstream, the approach to cultural objects changed. Whereas, previously, it was common to refer to such buildings and objects as ‘cultural property’, now it is more appropriate to refer to ‘cultural heritage’, an expression that captures its immaterial dimension.[ref]See Lyndel V Prott & Patrick J O’Keefe, “‘Cultural Heritage’ or ‘Cultural Property’?” (1992) 1:2 International Journal of Cultural Property 307.[/ref]

It has since become a truism that the tangible and intangible nature of cultural heritage are often two sides of the same coin. According to the Committee for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the right of everyone to “take part in cultural life” enshrined in Article 15(1)(c) of the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is “associated with the use of cultural goods”.[ref]UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General comment no 21, ESC 43rd, UN Doc E/C12/GC/21 (2009) at s 15(b).  [/ref] Former UN Special Rapporteur on Cultural Rights, Farida Shaheed, was of the view that “access to and enjoyment of cultural heritage as a human right is a necessary and complementary approach to the  preservation/safeguard[ing] of cultural heritage”.[ref]Farida Shaheed, Report of the independent expert in the field of cultural rights Farida Shadeed, HRC, 2011, A/HRC/17/38 at para 2.[/ref] The present Special Rapporteur, Karima Bennoune, has given priority to the intentional destruction of cultural heritage as a violation of human rights and, in a related report, has acknowledged that “cultural heritage is to be understood as the resources enabling the cultural identification and development processes of individuals and groups, which they, implicitly or explicitly, wish to transmit to future generations”.[ref]Karima Bennoune, Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, HRC, 2016, A/HRC/31/59 at para 47.[/ref] In line with this reasoning, UNESCO adopted two treaties emphasizing the immaterial side of cultural heritage: the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2003[ref]Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 1 (entered into force 20 April 2006), online: <treaties.un.org >.[/ref] and the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions in 2005.[ref]Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, 20 October 2005, 2440 UNTS 311 online: <treaties.un.org>.[/ref]

It is often useful to acknowledge the intimate connection that generally exists between the material and immaterial dimensions of cultural heritage. For example, recognition of the symbolic weight of cultural heritage can play a crucial role in devising peace processes and reconciliation strategies.[ref]See Dacia Viejo-Rose, “Reconstructing Heritage in the Aftermath of Civil War: Re-Visioning the Nation and the Implications of International Involvement” (2013) 7:2 Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 125; Marina Lostal & Emma Cunliffe, “Cultural heritage that heals: factoring in cultural heritage discourses in the Syrian peacebuilding process” (2016) 7:2-3 The Historic Environment: Policy & Practice 248.[/ref] The impact of the destruction of cultural heritage on individuals and the community is also relevant for determining the form and amount of reparations owed to victims, and for assessing the gravity of the crime when passing sentence. In fact, the Trial Chamber noted at the Al Mahdi trial that the “symbolic and emotional value for the inhabitants of Timbuktu [was] relevant in assessing the gravity of the crime committed”[ref]Supra note 11 at para 79.[/ref] and, given its world heritage listing, the attack also affected “people throughout Mali and the international community”.[ref]Ibid at para 80.[/ref]

In contrast to this general trend, however, focusing on the intangible side of cultural heritage during the confirmation of charges phase, as happened in the Al Mahdi case, is not a particularly helpful long-term strategy for the prosecution of such crimes. This anthropocentric focus, as we shall see, constitutes a legal innovation that is not only historically inaccurate but, most importantly, may narrow the scope of the protection afforded to tangible cultural heritage.

 

The Prosecution’s strategy at the confirmation of charges: “What is at stake here is not just walls and stones”

The confirmation of charges at the ICC is an initial part of the proceedings in which the Pre-Trial Chamber must determine “whether there is sufficient evidence to establish substantial grounds to believe that the person committed each of the crimes charged”[ref]ICC Statute, supra note 3 at s 61(7).[/ref] and, if so, to confirm those charges. At this stage, the Pre-Trial Chamber may also pronounce on whether the case at hand meets the ‘gravity threshold’, according to which, if the case is not of sufficient gravity to justify further action by the Court, it will be declared inadmissible.[ref]Ibid, s 17(1)(d), 19.[/ref] In a previous instance, the Pre-Trial Chamber conceded that “all crimes that fall within the subject-matter jurisdiction of the Court [such as the destruction of cultural heritage] are serious”,[ref]Decision Pursuant to article 15 of the Rome Statute on the Authorization of an Investigation into the Situation in the Republic of Kenya, ICC-01/09 Pre-Trial Chamber (31 March 2010) at para 56.  The gravity test for admissibility purposes must not be confused with the considerations that the Trial Chamber makes in order to determine the appropriate sentence; these are two different tests.[/ref] but that the gravity threshold requirement acted as an “additional safeguard which prevents the Court from investigating, prosecuting and trying peripheral cases”.[ref]Ibid. See also Margaret M. de Guzman, “The International Criminal Court’s Gravity Jurisprudence at Ten” (2013) 12:3 Global Studies Law Review 475.[/ref]

Given that the Al Mahdi case represents a historical first, in that it was solely centred on the damage and destruction of cultural heritage, and taking into account the ICC’s current crisis of legitimacy,[ref]Iain Macleod & Shehzad Charania, “Three challenges for the International Criminal Court” (16 November 2015), OUPblog (blog), online: <https://blog.oup.com/2015/11/three-challenges-international-criminal-court/>.[/ref] the gravity threshold must have been a particular concern for the Office of the Prosecutor – even more so in light of the ongoing criticisms it received for devoting attention to a crime against property. Amnesty International and the International Federation for Human Rights, for example, expressed “some public reservations that the ICC had advanced his case while other crimes [in Mali], such as the murder, rape, and torture of civilians, had not received the same degree of attention”.[ref]Brian I Daniels, “Is the destruction of cultural property a war crime?”, Apollo (28 November 2016) online: <https://www.apollo-magazine.com/is-the-destruction-of-cultural-property-a-war-crime/>.[/ref] Perhaps wary of the perception that crimes against property are too detached from human suffering, the Chief Prosecutor of the ICC, Fatou Bensouda – immediately after the transfer of Al Mahdi to The Hague – referred to the attacks against the mausoleums as a “callous assault on the dignity and identity of entire populations, their religious and historical roots”,[ref] Fatou Bensouda, Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, Fatou Bensouda, following the transfer of the first suspect in the Mali investigation: “Intentional attacks against historic monuments and buildings dedicated to religion are grave crimes” (26 September 2015), online: <https://www.icc-cpi.int/pages/item.aspx?name=otp-stat-26-09-2015> (emphases added). [/ref] and further added that “[t]he inhabitants of Northern Mali [are] the main victims of these attacks”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] This political statement acquired a legal dimension when the Prosecution followed this anthropocentric line of reasoning at the confirmation of charges hearing. Bensouda submitted:

Let us be clear: What is at stake here is not just walls and stones. The destroyed mausoleums were important from a religious point of view, from an historical point of view and from an identity point of view.[ref]ICC, Al Mahdi Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges Hearing (1 March 2016) at 13.[/ref]

The Prosecution went on to address a number of necessary technical concerns, such as the five elements of the war crime against cultural heritage in relation to the accused,[ref]Ibid at 73-79.[/ref] and the modes of liability applicable to Al Mahdi.[ref]Ibid at 80-95.[/ref] However, this was placed in a context where the impact on human lives and human suffering was emphasized as the driving force behind the prosecution of the crime:

Madam President, your Honours, the Rome Statute prohibits and punishes the most reprehensible criminal acts: Crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. These crimes can be perpetrated in various forms, but they all have one common denominator: They inflict irreparable damage to the human persons in his or her body, mind, soul and identity.

[…]

Such an attack against buildings dedicated to religion and historic monuments falls into the category of crimes that destroy the roots of an entire people and profoundly and irremediably affect its social practices and structures. This is precisely why such acts constitute a crime under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute.[ref]Ibid at 12–13 (emphasis added). The confirmation of charges decision reached by the Pre-Trial Chamber took note of this anthropocentric turn of the crime against cultural heritage, observing that “the Buildings/Structures played an important role in the life of the inhabitants of Timbuktu and that their destruction was considered as a serious matter and regarded by the local population as an aggression towards their faith”; see Confirmation of Charges, supra note 29 at 39.[/ref]

Albeit politically strategic, affording such prominence to the intangible dimension of the destruction of cultural heritage at the confirmation of charges was historically inaccurate and, most importantly, potentially counterproductive for future prosecutions.

 

The History of the Prohibition of Attacks Against Cultural Heritage

Notwithstanding the Chief Prosecutor’s statement, concrete human suffering and victimization are not the rationale behind the crime against cultural heritage as enshrined in the ICC Statute. Historically, the existence of this crime has not been linked to questions of identity, the human right to take part in cultural life, or freedom of thought or religion. In fact, the existence of a prohibition of attacks against cultural heritage predates the human rights movement altogether.

Emerich de Vattel, an 18th-century Swiss jurist and diplomat, began codifying the laws of war in his major work, Les Droits des Gens (1758). In paragraph 168, ‘What things are to be spared’, he identified the emergence of a new norm prohibiting the pillage and wanton destruction of cultural property:

For whatever cause a country is ravaged, we ought to spare those edifices which do honour to human society, and do not contribute to increase the enemy’s strength — such as temples, tombs, public buildings, and all works of remarkable beauty. What advantage is obtained by destroying them? It is declaring one’s self an enemy to mankind, thus wantonly to deprive them of these monuments of art and models of taste; and in that light Belisarius represented the matter to Tittila, king of the Goths. We still detest those barbarians who destroyed so many wonders of art, when they overran the Roman Empire.[ref]Emerich de Vattel, Les Droits des Gens (London: 1758) at para 168, cited in Caroline Ehlert, Prosecuting the Destruction of Cultural Property in International Criminal Law (Leiden: Maritnus Nijhoff, 2014) at 17.[/ref]

Nevertheless, he also contended that if it was “necessary to destroy edifices of that nature in order to carry on the operations of war, or to advance the works in a siege, we have an undoubted right to take such a step”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] This is essentially the dual approach that international law follows today in respect to cultural property. The basic rule of the 1954 Hague Convention is that cultural property and its surroundings shall not be made the object of an attack or be used for military purposes unless it is required by military necessity.[ref]1954 Hague Convention on Cultural Property, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240 art 4. [/ref]

This prohibition became binding instructions for the Union Army during the American Civil War when Abraham Lincoln sanctioned the so-called ‘Lieber Code’ of 1863. Article 35 stated that “classical works of art, libraries, scientific collections, or precious instruments … must be secured against all avoidable injury”.[ref]General Orders No. 100 : The Lieber Code, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, prepared by Francis Lieber promulgated as General Orders No. 100 by President Lincoln, 24 April 1863 art 35.[/ref] Later, in 1899, Tsar Nicholas II convened the First Hague Peace Conference whose goal was to revise the laws and customs of war laid down in the 1874 Brussels Declaration, an instrument that had never entered into force. The 1899 Annex to The Hague Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land contained provisions demanding respect for institutions dedicated to religion, charity and education, the arts and sciences.[ref]Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague II); July 29, 1899, arts. 27 and 56.[/ref] In 1907 a Second International Peace Conference revisited the laws and customs of war. These were adopted in the IV Hague Regulations, which now represent customary international law.[ref]See UN Security Council, Report of the Secretary-General (S/25704).[/ref] Article 27 of the 1907 IV Hague Regulations states:

In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided they are not being used at the time for military purposes.[ref]International Conferences (The Hague), Hague Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and Its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 18 October 1907.[/ref]

There have been later instruments dedicated to the protection of cultural property in armed conflict, such as the 1954 Hague Convention and its 1999 Second Protocol, that are more comprehensive, but Article 27 of the 1907 IV Hague Regulations is the provision that inspired the definition of the war crime of directing attacks against cultural heritage that is enshrined in the ICC Statute. In 1907, however, a general acceptance of the concept of international human rights was decades away (i.e. 1948), and discourses on the intrinsic connection between the tangible and intangible aspects of cultural heritage only appeared around a century later (i.e. the adoption of the UNESCO Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage took place in 2003). In fact, cultural heritage was not even a topic in and of itself. As such, the Chief Prosecutor’s affirmation in the Al Mahdi case that the profound effect wrought on a people’s social practices and structures “is precisely why such acts [of destruction] constitute a crime under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute” is a legal invention.[ref]Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges, supra note 58 at 12.[/ref]

The ICC’s set of five conditions that need to be proven in order to establish whether a crime against cultural heritage has been committed present a tangible definition, and are thus more consistent with the legal past of this prohibition:

  1. The perpetrator directed an attack;
  2. The object of the attack was one or more buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals or places where the sick and wounded are collected, which were not military objectives;
  3. The perpetrator intended such building or buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals or places where the sick and wounded are collected, which were not military objectives, to be the object of the attack;
  4. The conduct took place in the context of and was associated with an armed conflict not of an international character;
  5. The perpetrator was aware of factual circumstances that established the existence of an armed conflict.[ref] Elements of Crimes, Article 8(2)(e)(iv) “War crime of attacking protected objects” in Official Records of the Assembly of States\Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First session, New York, 3-10 September 2002 .[/ref]

It follows that inflicting harm or suffering on the population is immaterial to the existence of the crime of attacks against cultural heritage. Human suffering should not be put forward as a requirement to prove that the crime meets the gravity threshold for admissibility purposes as this would amount to revisiting the definition of the crime.

Moreover, if the anthropocentric reading espoused by the Office of the Prosecution took hold, the ICC (and all courts that follow its example) would potentially be turning a blind eye to episodes of damage and destruction that do not affect the social or cultural practices of a specific population. This is not an improbable scenario: it actually took place in 2001, when the Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan were destroyed.

 

The Buddhas of Bamiyan: The Destruction of Buddhist ‘Idols’ in a Muslim Country

The Buddhas of Bamiyan were two monumental statues – situated in the Bamiyan valley in Afghanistan – which had been placed on the Afghan Tentative List of World Heritage in expectation of entry in the renowned World Heritage List. It is estimated that they were built around the 5th century,[ref]Xinriu Liu, The Silk Road in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010) at 63.[/ref] and one may have been “the largest [standing] Buddha … in the world”.[ref]Ilona Bartsch, Bamiyan Buddhas in Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, ed by Claire Smith (New York: Springer, 2014) at 744.[/ref] At the feet of these gigantic statues lay a community of Buddhist monasteries, which welcomed worshippers and sightseers from around the world.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] These monuments represented a historic cultural landmark for Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike for around 1,500 years, particularly during the golden era of the Silk Road.

In 2001, the Taliban had gained control over 90 percent of Afghanistan, and the situation had changed dramatically.[ref]Stephen Tanner, Afghanistan: A Millitary History of Afghanistan from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban (Boston: Da Capo Press, 2009) at 219.[/ref] Taliban rule was noted for its “absolute lack of freedom of expression and [its] total ban on pictures”,[ref]Francesco Francioni & Federico Lenzerini, “The Destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan and International Law” (2003)14:4 Eur J Intl L 619 at 624.[/ref] which it regarded as the products of infidel religions. Mullah Omar, leader of the Taliban at the time, encouraged the removal of all traces of non-Islamic cultural heritage from Afghan territory.[ref]Pierre Centlivres, “The Controversy over the Buddhas of Bamiyan” (2008) 2 South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic J at 2.[/ref] This policy was reinforced by the publication of a decree by the Afghan Supreme Court ordering the destruction of the Buddhas,[ref]Francioni & Lenzerini, supra note 75 at 626.[/ref] and the statues were consequently dynamited over a period of ten days in March 2001.

The international community reacted with shock and outrage. In 2003, UNESCO adopted the Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage as an explicit reaction to the “tragic destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan that affected the international community as a whole”.[ref]Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, 32C/Res. 33, UNESCOR, 32nd Sess, (2003) preamble.[/ref]

One statement in particular deserves attention here. The destruction of the Buddhas led the then-UNESCO Director-General, Koïchiro Matsuura, to speak of “crimes against culture”.[ref]Francesco Bandarin, “Editorial” World Heritage Newsletter n. 30 (May-June 2001) at 1.[/ref] This was pure rhetoric. Firstly, the destruction of the Buddhas happened during peacetime and there is no crime against cultural heritage enforceable outside armed conflict, at least at the international level. Secondly, Afghanistan deposited its instrument of accession to the ICC Statute on 10 February 2003 and, in principle, the Court could only start exercising jurisdiction over crimes committed on its territory or by its nationals after 1 May 2003.

But what would happen if the destruction of the Buddhas occurred during an armed conflict today? In such a case, the ICC’s Office of the Prosecutor could launch an investigation, and if it did so, it would find that the destruction of the shrines in Mali and the Buddhas of Bamiyan share some relevant similarities. Both events represented acts of sheer iconoclasm and both followed a policy decreeing the removal of all ‘infidel’ traces. In relation to the Buddhas, the text of the Afghan Supreme Court decree clearly stated:

[T]hese idols have been gods of the infidels, and these are respected even now and perhaps maybe turned into gods again. The real God is only Allah, and all other false gods should be removed.[ref]Cited in Francioni & Lenzerini, supra note 75 at 626.[/ref]

In a similar vein, a spokesperson for Ansar Dine reportedly declared in the aftermath of the destruction of the shrines in Mali: “There is no world heritage. It does not exist. Infidels must not get involved in our business.”[ref]Cited in Irina Bokova, “Culture in the Cross Hairs”, The New York Times (2 December 2012).[/ref]

While Timbuktu was added to the World Heritage List in 1988, the Buddhas of Bamiyan were part of the Afghan Tentative List of World Heritage[ref]Tentative lists are inventories of properties that each State Party to the World Heritage Convention intend to present for nomination for the World Heritage List. The current Afghan tentative list can be accessed at http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/af (last visited on 25 May 2017).[/ref] and were missing a formal requirement for their definitive inscription on the World Heritage List at the time they were destroyed. However, technically speaking, the fact that a property constituting cultural heritage has not been included on the World Heritage List “shall in no way be construed to mean that it does not have an outstanding universal value”.[ref]Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 16 November 1972, art 12.[/ref] Thus, both sites represented cultural heritage of outstanding universal value and, as a consequence, its deterioration or disappearance equally constitute “a harmful impoverishment of the heritage of all the nations of the world”.[ref]Ibid at preamble.[/ref]

There is, however, a major difference between the two episodes: whereas the affected shrines in Timbuktu were used by the local population in their religious practices,[ref]Supra note 29 at para 36.[/ref] there are no records indicating the presence of Buddhism in Afghanistan after 1336.[ref]Hamid Wahed Alikuzai, A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes (Bloomington, Indiana: Trafford Publishing, 2013) vol 14 at 123. [/ref] The intangible dimension of the crime as understood by the Chief Prosecutor would therefore be missing in the case of the Buddhas: their destruction could not affect the social practices and structures or the cultural roots of the local people. It would lack what the Chief Prosecutor has pointed to as the common denominator of all crimes detailed by the ICC Statute – that is, that “[t]hey inflict irreparable damage to the human persons in his or her body, mind, soul and identity”.[ref]Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges, supra note 58 at 12–13.[/ref] According to this reasoning, unlike the shrines of Timbuktu, the destruction of the Buddhas would not warrant prosecution as a war crime before the ICC.

Turning consequences for the local population into ingredients for the gravity threshold of the crime against cultural heritage may have the adverse effect of rendering instances of the destruction of sites protected under international law (due to their importance for the whole of humanity) inadmissible. For example, given the disappearance of the Mayan civilization, the (hypothetical) obliteration in armed conflict of the Mayan site of Chichen Itza in Mexico would not square with the reading proposed for this crime. The same would happen in the case of the destruction of the so-called ‘forgotten cities’ in Syria, a group of “40 villages grouped in eight parks situated in north-western Syria [which provide a] remarkable testimony to rural life in late Antiquity and during the Byzantine period”,[ref]UNESCO, Ancient Villages of Northern Syria: Description, online: <whc.unesco.org/en/list/1348>.[/ref] which, as their name suggests, were abandoned many centuries ago. What is more, if damage to social practices and structures was “precisely why such acts constitute a crime under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute”,[ref]Transcript of the Confirmation of Charges, supra note 58 at 12–13.[/ref] would it stop being a war crime if all the population agreed through a referendum to the defacing of statues or demolition of historical places of worship? Likewise, would it stop being a crime if the defence was able to prove that the population did not feel any attachment to the cultural properties? It is in no one’s interest to exclude such episodes from the definition of the crime and, for this reason, the Office of the Prosecution should avoid re-defining its boundaries.

In the judgment and sentence of Al Mahdi, Trial Chamber VII was relatively faithful to the history and legal contours of the crime.[ref]Supra note 11 at paras 13–20.[/ref] It considered the symbolic and emotional value of the destroyed buildings for the inhabitants of Timbuktu as relevant in assessing the gravity of the crime and thus in determining the appropriate sentence.[ref]Ibid at para 79.[/ref] However, in so doing, the Chamber acknowledged that “even if inherently grave, crimes against property are generally of lesser gravity than crimes against persons”.[ref]Ibid at para 77.[/ref]

 

Conclusion

The conflict in Mali is part of a larger pattern of conflicts taking place across the Sahel and the Middle East, including in Syria, Iraq and Libya. Despite their initially secular motivations (in the case of Mali, a Tuareg-led rebellion against the central administration in Bamako), these conflicts have been hijacked by fundamentalist groups with different names (Ansar Dine, AQIM, MUJAO, ISIS) but a similar purpose: that of imposing a new reading of society, order and religion on the populations of these regions. This necessitates the eradication and denial of their past and their identity, and entails the destruction (and looting) of cultural heritage.

In a context where the arsenal of war now includes the destruction of historical and religious sites, the Al Mahdi case has put the crime of directing attacks against cultural heritage back on the map and sent a clear warning of the legal consequences. It has provided a unique legal precedent, and legitimized the inclusion and treatment of such acts of destruction in other conflicts around the world as war crimes.

Nevertheless, while the Prosecution was right to contend that the “intentional destruction of cultural property is by nature a serious crime”,[ref]Prosecution’s submissions on sentencing, supra note 15 at 18.[/ref] this destruction – contrary to the Prosecution’s submission – is not always “aimed at erasing the cultural identity and heritage of a population”.[ref]Ibid.[/ref] Although it is a less widely known scenario, destruction of cultural property may also happen for reasons unrelated to a population’s identity and the wish to re-write history. For example, the Syrian armed forces bombarded the medieval fortress of Crac des Chevaliers (a Syrian world heritage site) in July 2013, but it did so in pursuit of its quest to reconquer the city of Homs.[ref]American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), “Ancient History, Modern Destruction: Assessing the Current Status of Syria’s World Heritage Sites Using High-Resolution Satellite Imagery” (Washington: 2014) at 39. See also, Channel 4 News, “Syria: inside the Crac des Chevaliers crusader castle” (31 March 2014), online: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9tqmxe4Ilw>. A video shows the signs of alleged occupation by Syrian rebel forces and the effects of the bombardment of the castle, reportedly by Bashar al-Assad’s forces.[/ref]

Local peoples, more often than not, feel victimised by the looting, damage or disappearance of what they consider to be ‘their’ heritage. This is something that should not be neglected, and there are mechanisms within the ICC to ensure that the views of victims are heard throughout the proceedings and, if appropriate, that they are compensated for their loss. However, as this article argues, the anthropocentric reading of the Al Mahdi proceedings at the confirmation of charges stage merely paid lip service to the history behind this crime and compromised future prosecutions by limiting the ambit of its application.

* Lecturer in International Law, The Hague University of Applied Sciences; PhD (EUI); LLM (Cambridge) author may be contacted at [email protected]. The first version of this article was submitted in September 2016, and its last on January 10 2017.

About the Author

Marina Lostal is a lecturer in International Law at The Hague University, an ad hoc lecturer in International Criminal Law at the Universidad
Torcuato di Tella in Buenos Aires, and a consultant for Geneva Call in the study on the relationship between the protection of cultural property and
non-state actors. She holds an LLM from the University of Cambridge and a PhD from the European University Institute. She is admitted to practice in
Spain and has assisted the Karadzic stand-by defence team (ICTY) during the final phase of the trial.

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